Nanocellulose from Agricultural Wastes: Products and Applications—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biomass Sources
3. Nanocellulose Products
3.1. Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC)
3.2. Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC)
3.3. Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF)
3.4. Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
4. Conditioning, Pretreatments and Bleaching Processes
4.1. Biomass Conditioning
4.2. Pretreatments
4.2.1. Alkaline
4.2.2. Hot Water and Ionic Liquids
4.3. Bleaching Process
5. Applications and Future Perspectives
5.1. Food Packaging
5.2. Wastewater Treatment
5.3. Foodstuffs
5.4. Biomedical Applications
5.5. Wood Adhesives
5.6. Cosmetic
5.7. Electrical and Optical Materials
5.8. Textile
5.9. CO Capture
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AFM | Atomic force microscopy |
AmimCl | 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride |
BmimCl | 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride |
BNC | Bacterial nanocellulose |
CBH | Cellobiohydrolases |
CNC | Cellulose nanocrystals |
CNF | Cellulose nanofibers |
DLS | Dynamic light scattering |
DSC | Differential scanning calorimetry |
DTA | Differential thermal analysis |
HIUS | High intensity ultrasonication |
IL | Ionic liquids |
LCB | Lignocellulosic biomass |
LHW | Liquid hot water |
MCC | Microcrystalline cellulose |
SANS | Small-angle neutron scattering |
SEM | Scanning electron microscopy |
TAED | Tetraacetylethylenediamine |
TEM | Transmission electron microscopy |
TEMPO | 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl |
TGA | Thermogravimetric analysis |
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Nanocellulose Product | Diameter, nm | Length, nm |
---|---|---|
Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) Microfibril | 2–10 | >10,000 |
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) | 2–20 | 100–600 |
Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) | 4–10 | 100–2000 |
Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) Microfibrillated | 10–40 | >1000 |
Microcrytalline cellulose (MCC) | >1000 | >1000 |
% Cellulose | % Hemicellulose | % Lignin | |
---|---|---|---|
Aspen | 53 | 22 | 20 |
Bamboo | 40 | 20 | 21 |
Barley straw | 38 | 35 | 16 |
Bean hulls | 52 | 26 | 10 |
Coconut husk fiber | 25 | 12 | 40 |
Corncob | 45 | 35 | 15 |
Corn husks | 29 | 40 | 11 |
Corn stover | 38–40 | 24–26 | 7–19 |
Cotton | 40 | 23 | 23 |
Jute | 61–71 | 14–20 | 12–13 |
Mango seeds | 55 | 21 | 24 |
Olive tree pruning | 30–40 | 24–27 | 18–23 |
Pineapple leaf fibre | 75 | 13 | 10 |
Pine | 47 | 20 | 27 |
Pistachio shells | 54 | 20 | 25 |
Poplar | 49 | 24 | 20 |
Raw banana fibre | 70 | 20 | 6 |
Rice straw | 30–35 | 25–35 | 12–23 |
Sorghum bagasse | 34–45 | 18–27 | 14–21 |
Soy hulls | 48 | 24 | 6 |
Spruce | 43 | 30 | 28 |
Sugarcane bagasse | 40–50 | 20–24 | 25–30 |
Switchgrass | 5–20 | 30–50 | 10–40 |
Sunflower | 37 | 21 | 17 |
Wheat straw | 30–38 | 21–50 | 15–23 |
Biomass | Process | Product | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pretreatment | Treatment | |||
Apple | NaOH 10%, 160 min, | Acid hydrolysis 45% HSO, | Cellulose | [19] |
pomace | 70 °C | 50 °C, 45 min + ultrasonication | nanocrystals | |
Argan press | NaOH 12% + NaSO 8%, | Purified cellulose | [18] | |
cake | 90 min, 80 °C | powder | ||
Bamboo | Microwave liquefaction + NaClO | Cellulose | [68] | |
0.1%, 75 °C, 1 h + ultrasonication | nanofibers | |||
Banana | KOH 5%, 14 h + | Acid hydrolysis HSO 1%, | Cellulose | [69] |
peels | NaClO 1%, 70 °C, 1 h | 80 °C, 2 h 3 times | nanofibers | |
Citrulluss | NaOH 1M, 24 h, 70 °C + | Acid hydrolysis HSO 40%, | Cellulose | [70] |
colocynthis | bleaching with NaClO | 30 min + sonication | nanofibers | |
Corncob | LHW 190 °C, 30 min, | Ionic liquid 4% BmimCl | Cellulose | [1] |
+ Alkali 2% NaOH, | nanofibers | |||
90 min, 90 °C | ||||
Corn | NaOH 5%, 121 °C + | Acid hydrolysis HSO 64%, | Cellulose | [71] |
straw | HO 2% + TAED 0.2% | 25 °C, 90 min | whiskers | |
Dunchi | HO 2% + TAED 0.2% | Acid hydrolysis HSO 64%, | Cellulose | [72] |
fibers | 25 °C, 60 min | nanofibers | ||
Oil palm | NaOH 6%, 24 h, 20 °C | Acid hydrolysis HSO 64%, | Cellulose | [73] |
trunk | 45 °C, 60 min | nanocrystals | ||
Olive tree | TEMPO-ox + defibrillation | Cellulose | [74] | |
pruning | high-pressure microfluidizer | nanofibers | ||
Pine | NaOH 5%, 14 h | Acidified sodium chlorite 6%, | Cellulose | [75] |
cones | 70 °C, 1 h | nanofibers | ||
Pineapple | NaOH 2%, 4 h, 100 °C + | Acid hydrolysis HSO 64%, | Cellulose | [76] |
leaf | bleaching 80 °C, 4 h | 45 °C, 30 min | nanocrystals | |
Rice | NaOH 4%, 2 h + | Acid hydrolysis HSO 10 M, | Cellulose | [77] |
husks | bleaching 130 °C, 4 h | 50 °C, 40 min + sonication | nanocrystals | |
Sisal | NaOH 4%, 80 °C, 2 h + | Enzymatic hydrolysis | Microfibrillated | [78] |
fibers | bleaching 80 °C, 4 h | (cellulases) | cellulose | |
Sorghum | NaOH + bleaching | Acid hydrolysis HCl 2.5 N, | Microcrystaline | [79] |
stalks | with NaClO | 105 °C, 15 min | cellulose | |
Sunflower | NaOH 5%, 2 h, 98 °C + | Acid hydrolysis HSO 64%, | Cellulose | [80] |
stalks | sodium chlorite 5% | 45 °C, 30 min | nanofibers | |
Vine | NaOH 4%, 120 min, 80 °C | Acid hydrolysis HSO 64%, | Cellulose | [65] |
shoots | + bleaching with acetate | 50 °C, 30 min | nanocrystals | |
and sodium chlorite | ||||
Yute | NaOH 5%, 60 min, | Mechanical | Cellulose | [50] |
fiber | 80 °C + TAED | defibrillation | nanofibers |
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Mateo, S.; Peinado, S.; Morillas-Gutiérrez, F.; La Rubia, M.D.; Moya, A.J. Nanocellulose from Agricultural Wastes: Products and Applications—A Review. Processes 2021, 9, 1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091594
Mateo S, Peinado S, Morillas-Gutiérrez F, La Rubia MD, Moya AJ. Nanocellulose from Agricultural Wastes: Products and Applications—A Review. Processes. 2021; 9(9):1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091594
Chicago/Turabian StyleMateo, Soledad, Silvia Peinado, Francisca Morillas-Gutiérrez, M. Dolores La Rubia, and Alberto J. Moya. 2021. "Nanocellulose from Agricultural Wastes: Products and Applications—A Review" Processes 9, no. 9: 1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091594