Solid Particle Erosion Behaviour and Protective Coatings for Gas Turbine Compressor Blades—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- Mechanical degradation: the wearing of seals and bearings, coupling problems with high levels of noise and vibration, or difficulties with the lubrication system. It is crucial to realize that on many occasions high levels of vibration will be a sign of an underlying problem, which could be aerodynamic in nature and impinge on performance; and
- (2)
- Performance degradation: this is seen in the form of component and/or performance deterioration which can be remedied by actions taken while the GTE is operating, such as compressor fouling (recoverable deterioration), by overhaul at shutdown such as surface erosion (unrecoverable deterioration), and/or cannot be fully removed and residual deterioration will remain even after major overhauls such as airfoil platform distortion (permanent deterioration).
2. Solid Particle Erosion Mechanism
- (1)
- Two-thirds of the rotor blades are impacted at the leading edge, while the other one-third are hit at the trailing edge.
- (2)
- Two-thirds of the stator blades are hit at the trailing edge, while the other one-third are hit at the leading edge.
- (3)
- Cracks are equally distributed over blade height.
- (4)
- Thickening of the well-rounded leading edge and the decreased chord length caused the flow to reduce along with the isentropic compressor efficiency by 1.2% and 0.8%, respectively.
2.1. Ductile Solid Particles Erosion (SPE) Mechanism
2.2. Brittle SPE Mechanism
2.3. Ductile-Brittle Transition Mechanism
- For brittle materials, e.g., ceramics, the maximum rate of erosion rate typically takes place at an incidence angle of 90°;
- For ductile materials, e.g., metals, the maximum rate of erosion typically takes place at angles of impact between 20° and 30°.
3. SPE Effective Parameters
4. Solid Particle Erosion Modelling
- Spool speed = 9170 rpm;
- Pressure ratio = 1.252;
- Mass flow = 9.475 kg/s;
- Blade tip speed = 243.9 m/s;
5. SPE Protection Coatings
- Vapour phase: including physical and chemical vapour deposition (PVD and CVD) methods. With PVD, the material to be used for the coating is evaporated from a source (either solid or liquid) with an atomic composition that travels and condenses on the substrate exposed surface under vacuum or gaseous environments. However, the CVD is a combination process where the chemical component is introduced in the vapour phase on a heated surface to form a layer of solid deposit.
- Liquid phase or direct liquid coating technique: this approach contains any process of precursor-containing liquid deposition on an underlying layer or surface, after which there as a suitable thermal or/and chemical treatment to produce the required film layer.
- Solid phase: this process consists of solid-state deposition and unification of high-speed particles of powder entrained in a gas jet onto the substrate surface. These particles of powder experience a plastic deformation when they impact the surface and in this way adheres to the surface while simultaneously undergoing inter-particle bonding.
6. Discussion and Future Directions
- There is still a shortage in data on SPE for newly developed advanced composite materials, such as those containing graphene, carbon nanotubes, and other nano-reinforcements of carbon base.
- Simulation studies on SPE effects on composites are still not sufficient enough and need to be further explored for quantitative purposes.
- Development of new generation of thin layer coatings that are durable, of negligible weight effect, cost effective, and can easily be applied is of great importance and remains one of the main challenges to researchers.
- Producing thin films with multifunctional properties, such as anti-erosion, corrosion, de-icing, and abrasion, would be highly attractive to the GTE industry and many other sectors.
- Advancing the coatings fabrication techniques and/or standardizing existing methods in terms of deposition rate, temperature, and surrounding pressure conditions is of high importance.
- Investigating the long-life degradation of the deposited films also needs to be covered, as the majority of the available studies focuses on the short-term behaviour of the coating layer. Therefore, they do not provide the full image to the end-user.
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
A, B, C, D, , n2 | constants and exponents, which are affected by impact conditions |
Cd | drag coefficient |
shifting coefficient | |
shifting exponent | |
specific heat (J/kg °C) | |
flow stress temperature constant | |
Cr | heat capacity of the target (J/K) |
blade chord (m) | |
particles influence in an idealised manner | |
C1 | constant |
D | constant of material properties |
particles density (kg/m3) | |
material density (kg/m3) | |
d | particle diameter (µm) |
minimum particle diameter for erosion take place (µm) | |
D1,2,3… | fracture constants |
E | erosion rate (g/min) |
young’s modulus of elasticity (N/m2) | |
, | elastic modulus (Pa) |
loss coefficient | |
er | restitution coefficient |
et | tangential restitution ratio |
amount of solid particles cutting the target surface (particles concentration) (wt. %) | |
threshold load for cracking (MPa (m) | |
fragmentation for test condition | |
Evc1,2 | volume of material removed by cutting mechanism (mm3/min) |
Evp | volume of material removed by deformation mechanism (mm3/min) |
F(t) | constant of several impacts |
function of impingement angle | |
exponents are prescribed functions of m, the flaw parameter of the Weibull fracture strength distribution | |
G | target gram molecular weight (g/mol) |
gp | particle gyration radius (µm) |
Hp | hardness of particle (Pa) |
material hardness (Pa) | |
Hv | Vickers hardness of target (kg/mm2) |
I | the moment of inertia of particle about its center of gravity |
constant force component ratio of particle | |
, | quality involving material constants |
k | constant |
Kc | fracture toughness (MPa M1/2) |
km | material constant |
equivalent sand grain roughness (µm) | |
KT | impacting particle kinetic energy (J) |
empirical constant | |
velocity component normal to the surface below which no erosion takes place in certain hard materials (m/s) | |
M | total mass of particle (Kg) |
mass of particle (Kg) | |
mass of an individual particle (Kg) | |
constant of shape parameter in range of 9.5 to 12.7 | |
n | test conditions functions values |
normal component | |
strain harding exponent | |
P | pressure (Pa) |
mean stress (Pa) | |
R | particle roundness (µm) |
r | particle radius (µm) |
material volume (m3) | |
collision velocity that reaches the material to the elastic limit (m/s) | |
Vol | material loss volume per impacting particles mass (mg/g) |
Vr | residual component of particle velocity (m/s) |
Vref | standard test velocity of particle (m/s) |
threshold velocity (m/s) | |
rebound velocity (m/s) | |
, | Poisson’s ratios |
melting temperature (°C) | |
dimensionless temperature | |
impact velocity (m/s) | |
plastic deformation wear rate (mm3/Nm) | |
X | factor of cutting |
particles horizontal velocity (m/s) | |
Greek letters | |
α | impact angle (deg) |
α0 | impact angle at which the horizontal velocity component has just become zero when the particle leaves the body (deg) |
σ | stress applied (Pa) |
scale parameter in range of 930 to 1230 | |
blade solidity | |
location parameter | |
limit of elastic load (Pa) | |
pressure-stress ratio | |
blade mean angle (deg) | |
blade angle (deg) | |
deformation factor (gf cm/c) | |
, | velocity of maximum erosion amounts (m/s) |
dimensionless strain rate | |
α/εc2 | constant term = 0.7 |
depth of contact to cut ratio | |
friction coefficient | |
maximum value of |
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Material Type | Example | Application | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nickel based superalloys |
| Aerospace, marine, industrial and military gas turbine engines | Good mechanical properties, easy machinability, good strength properties and low material cost | High manufacturing cost | [13] |
Titanium based superalloys |
| Aerospace and industrial gas turbine engines | Combine low densities with high strength, good weldability and high fatigue strength. | Limited by their operating temperature | [14] |
Cobalt-based superalloys |
| Aerospace, marine and industrial gas turbine engines | The alloy retains their strength up to higher temperatures. They derive their strength greatly from a distribution of refractory metal carbides, good resistant to corrosion, not so sensitive to cracking under thermal shocks and suitable for parts that need to be rotate. | Not mechanically strong as nickel-based superalloys | [13] |
Stainless steel |
| Aerospace, marine and industrial gas turbine engines. | Good corrosion resistance in dry environments. | Unsatisfactory corrosion resistance in wet environments (AISI 403 and 410), would suffer from thermal surface deformation in high temperatures conditions (e.g., jet turbines), can undergo pitting damages. | [15,16] |
Degradation Mechanisms | Description |
---|---|
Erosion | Material removal by abrasion due to the impacts of hard, incompressible particles of, typically, a diameter greater than 10 µm on surfaces along the flow path. Modern, highly efficient, but more massive filtration systems have been introduced into industrial systems, and this problem is now predominantly one for aero-engines. |
Corrosion | Caused by contaminants in both inlet air and fuel. Corrosion depends on the fuel used and is usually less for natural gas and increases the heavier the fuel oil, due to impurities and additives which produce aggressive deposits. Pollutants present in the inlet air can accelerate corrosion. |
Hot corrosion | Reactive gases, mineral acids, and salts in the flow can chemically interact and cause both material deterioration and loss from exposed components in the flow path. There can also be high-temperature oxidation of the component due to chemical interaction with the surrounding hot gaseous environment. Separately, the products of these chemical processes can stick to exposed components as a film of scale. Oxide scale protection is then subjected to degradation if any surface damage (e.g., cracking) is caused during the thermal cycle. |
Fouling | Results from particles in the flow adhering to exposed surfaces, resulting in material build up with increased roughness of the surface and even some change in aerofoil shape. Particles with the highest tendency for causing fouling are generally less than 2 µm in diameter. Typical examples are sea salts, carbon, oil or water mists, and smoke. |
Foreign object damage | Usually generated by foreign objects in the gas and/or air streams which strike components in the flow path. These can enter via the inlet air or gas compressor, or even as a result of pieces that break off engine components. |
Equation No. | Researchers | Model | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Equation (16) | Hamad et al. [46] | is mean angle of the compressor. | |
Equation (17) | Finnie [30,53] | E = (sin (2α) sin2 (α)) for tan α ≤ E = () for tan α ≥ | The first cutting equation; assumes a solid particle is moving with known velocity and angle of impact striking a target surface of rigid plastic material. Where the equation parameters change according to the angle of impact α, is depth of contact to cut ratio, and k = 2 as a constant. |
Equation (18) | Bitter [102,106] | Evp = Evc1 = . (V cos α- for α ≥ α0 Evc2 = for α ≤ α0 For the total erosion rate (cutting and deformation): E = Evp + Evc | Bitter’s equations provide better results at higher angles of impact than Finnie’s [30,53]. Four equations are presented. Where Evp and Evc1,2 are volume of surface material detached by deformation and cutting, respectively, is deformation factor, and e is the cutting wear element. |
Equation (19) | Neilson and Gilchrist [87] | E = for α ˂ E = for α ˃ | Where Vr is residual particle velocity, X is factor of cutting, is deformation factor. |
Equation (20) | Finnie [60] | E ( where = - | is particle’s influence in an idealised manner, and is particle horizontal velocity and is the moment of inertia of the particle about its center of gravity. |
Equation (21) | Sheldon and Kanhere [107] | E | Where Hv is Vickers hardness of target (kg/mm2). |
Equation (22) | Tilly [108] | E + | and is the velocity at maximum erosion rate, Vref is standard test velocity of particle, is fragmentation for test condition and is threshold velocity below which impact distortion is purely elastic and no damage takes place. |
Equation (23) | Jennings et al. [109] | E | enthalpy of melting of target. |
Equation (24) | Hutchings et al. [110] | E ( | This equation depend on the impact angle and particle velocity. |
Equation (25) | Evans et al. [70] | E | is particle density, Kc is fracture toughness and Hs hardness of target material. |
Equation (26) | Tabakoff et al. [111] | E ( sin | is the empirical constant, is a function of impact angle, et is the tangential restitution ratio, is the normal component, is the velocity of particles and is the impact angle |
Equation (27) | Sundararajan [112] | E = ) = | Assumes that the plastic flow localisation below the particle accounts for erosion. Where represents the flow stress temperature constant, Cr is the heat capacity of the target, er is the restitution coefficient, is the strain hardening exponent, F(t) is the constant of several impacts, Hp and are particle hardness and density respectively, is the friction coefficient, is the maximum value of , and gp is radius of gyration of impacting particle. |
Equation (28) | Chen et al. [83] | E | , is pressure-stress ratio, is dimensionless temperature and is a dimensionless strain rate. |
Equation (29) | Nsoesiea et al. [113] | E = | Where C1 is a constant, d represents the particle diameter, Dp is particle density, Hs hardness of the target, and impacting angle correction factors (shifting coefficient) and (shifting exponent). |
Physical Property | Equation Number | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | |
Cutting energy | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
cutting wear element | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Deformation factor | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Depth of contact to cut ratio | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Dimensionless strain rate | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Dimensionless temperature | ˟ | ||||||||||||
empirical constant | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Enthalpy of melting of target | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Erosion resistance | |||||||||||||
Flow stress temperature | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Fracture toughness | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Friction coefficient | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Impact angle | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||
Impacting particle kinetic energy | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Incremental strain per impact | |||||||||||||
Main stress | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Mass of an individual particle | |||||||||||||
Material fragmentation limits | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Melting temperature | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Minimum effective particle size | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Particle density | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||
Particle hardness | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Particle horizontal velocity | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Particle mass | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Particle roundness | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Particle size | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ||||||||
Particle velocity | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ˟ | ||
Particle velocity (residual component) | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Pressure | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Pressure-stress ratio | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Reparation coefficient | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Restitution coefficient | ˟ | ||||||||||||
shifting coefficient | ˟ | ||||||||||||
shifting exponent | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Strain hardening | |||||||||||||
Strain hardening exponent | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Target density | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Target gram molecular weight | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Target hardness | ˟ | ˟ | |||||||||||
Target heat capacity | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Thermal conductivity | |||||||||||||
Threshold velocity | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Total mass | |||||||||||||
Velocity at maximum erosion rate | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Velocity components | ˟ | ||||||||||||
Vickers hardness of target | ˟ |
Coating Material Type | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|
ZrN |
|
| [130] |
Cr3C2 | • Erosion resistance enhances at 500 to 600 °C due to the formation of oxycarbonitrides on the surface. |
| [130] |
WC-Co |
| • When formed using the cold spray method, the deposited layer cannot withstand extremely harsh operational environment. | [131] |
TiN |
|
| [132,133] |
TiN/Ti |
|
| [134,135] |
TiN/CrN |
|
| [136] |
Type | Process | Anti-Erosion Application |
---|---|---|
Thin hard films | PVD | Compressor blades, and brush seals |
Diffusion | CVD | Protection of the turbine blades against the oxidation/corrosion |
Dry film lubrication | Spray | Resistance to fretting wear of compressor blades |
Thermal barrier system | Thermal spray, PVD | Coating for turbine combustor blades, cans and vanes |
Wear resistance | Thermal spray | Coatings for turbine fans and stator blades |
Coating Method | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|
PVD | Thickness control; | Complicated and extensive equipment; |
Large area coating | The coating on uniform samples | |
CVD | Smooth coating process on a nonuniform substrate; | Complicated and extensive equipment; |
Strong adhesion | High-temperature process | |
Thermal spraying | Rapid coating; | High-temperature process; |
Large specific area | Grain grows |
Coating Method | Description | Advantages | Limitations |
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Vacuum deposition | The source material is vaporised and introduced to the substrate surfaces within a vacuum environment to apply the coating layer. This coating method can be employed to provide protective coatings for the following cases: (1) wear resistance; (2) corrosion; (3) electrically conducting films; (4) mirror coatings; etc. |
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Ion plating | A high energy particle flux is applied to the deposition film and substrate surface, enough to change the substrate and/or film properties. |
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Sputtering | Particle bombardment of a material results in a vapour and can be used to deposit an anti-erosion layer on a target. |
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Alqallaf, J.; Ali, N.; Teixeira, J.A.; Addali, A. Solid Particle Erosion Behaviour and Protective Coatings for Gas Turbine Compressor Blades—A Review. Processes 2020, 8, 984. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080984
Alqallaf J, Ali N, Teixeira JA, Addali A. Solid Particle Erosion Behaviour and Protective Coatings for Gas Turbine Compressor Blades—A Review. Processes. 2020; 8(8):984. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080984
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlqallaf, Jasem, Naser Ali, Joao A. Teixeira, and Abdulmajid Addali. 2020. "Solid Particle Erosion Behaviour and Protective Coatings for Gas Turbine Compressor Blades—A Review" Processes 8, no. 8: 984. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080984
APA StyleAlqallaf, J., Ali, N., Teixeira, J. A., & Addali, A. (2020). Solid Particle Erosion Behaviour and Protective Coatings for Gas Turbine Compressor Blades—A Review. Processes, 8(8), 984. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080984