Valorization of Food Industry Waste for Biodegradable Biopolymer-Based Packaging Films

Abstract

In recent years, food waste management has become one of the key challenges faced by modern society. The significant ecological footprint left by this type of waste can be mitigated through proper valorization. Directing food waste towards the production of biopolymers has attracted considerable attention from researchers. Plant- and animal-based by-products from the food industry are the valuable materials which can be utilized for the production of biopolymer-based films. Although the use of food waste in biopolymer film production holds great potential, various factors such as the type of source and extraction methods significantly affect the physicochemical properties of the films. With the addition of various compounds that enhance their antioxidant and antimicrobial effects, these films can prolong the freshness and safety of packaged products, making them comparable to plastic derived from fossil fuels. This review highlights the potential of biopolymers from food waste for the production of biopolymer-based films and the possibilities of their modification in order to improve their properties for use in the food packaging industry.

1. Introduction

In recent years, modern society has been confronted with significant challenges in waste material management. The food industry generates significant amounts of waste and unused by-products which, when improperly handled and disposed, can result in substantial environmental damage through greenhouse gas emissions [1,2]. According to data of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), approximately one-third of global food production is annually lost as food industry waste, which adds up to 1.3 billion tons annually [3,4]. The amount of food waste is higher in developed countries than in underdeveloped countries due to higher consumption.

An optimal strategy through which to mitigate this problem involves the valorization of waste into products such as animal feed or fertilizers [5,6]. Additionally, food industry waste has considerable potential for bioenergy production [7]. It also presents a valuable source for the extraction of numerous compounds, including polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and micronutrients [8]. The development of innovative solutions for the treatment and utilization of food waste is in line with the principles of the circular economy [9].

FAO data (2024) [10] indicate that food waste and by-products from the agri-food industry show great potential as sources of biopolymeric materials for the production of biopolymer-based food packaging films. Biopolymers, obtained from natural sources such as plant residues, food waste, or microorganisms, present a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based polymers. Their application in packaging has a critical role in the consumer supply chain by significantly reducing the use of non-renewable resources and mitigating environmental impact [11,12]. However, the use of food waste to obtain biopolymers poses a major challenge that requires thorough research. The type of source, method, and conditions of biopolymer extraction significantly influence the characteristics of biopolymer-based films. Biopolymer-based films can provide protection to food products by controlling gas transmission. Since these biopolymers can be used as carriers of functional agents, biopolymer-based films may exhibit notable antioxidant and antimicrobial potential [13].

At the same time, food safety remains a primary concern for both producers and consumers, driving increased attention toward the development of packaging systems that ensure product safety and extended shelf life keeping the sustainable development principles [14]. Conventional plastics used in packaging today are derived from non-renewable resources. Their low production cost and wide application have led to extensive use; however, growing consumer awareness of their environmental impact raises concern due to their poor biodegradability, which contributes to long-term environmental pollution. Moreover, the depletion of non-renewable resources directs attention toward alternative solutions [11].

This study reviews the potential of food industry waste as a source for biopolymer extraction intended for the production of biopolymer-based packaging films. Special attention is given to biopolymers derived from plant residues, by-products from fruit and vegetable processing, and those from marine organisms. The aim is to emphasize their functionality and the possibility of modification by adding active components that enhance food freshness and safety. Understanding the physicochemical properties of these biopolymers is crucial for designing films that meet the requirements of the food industry in terms of protection, strength, and permeability.

2. Search Strategy and Methodology

For the purpose of this study, scientific studies published in English between 2016 and 2025 were used, and they were collected from three relevant databases: Google Scholar (GS), Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS). The “all fields” search option was applied in all databases to ensure the inclusion of all potentially relevant information. In Google Scholar, the search was conducted using the keywords “food waste,” “biodegradable films,” and “biopolymer-based,” which resulted in a total of 886 records. The same keywords were used in the Scopus database, yielding 484 records. In Web of Science, the keywords “food waste” and “biodegradable films” were used, resulting in 187 articles. All search results were manually screened and selected based on their relevance to the topic, specifically isolation of biopolymers and characterization of produced biopolymer-based films. A total of 25 articles were used to compile a tabular overview of biopolymer sources, extraction methods, as well as the functional and environmental characteristics of biopolymer-based materials.

3. Biopolymer-Based Films

Food packaging represents a crucial segment of the food industry, serving not only a protective function but also influencing the quality of food along the “farm-to-fork” chain. The main challenge in the production of food packaging is in development of methods to meet market demand for high-quality products free of chemical preservatives without compromising product quality and safety. Biopolymer-based films have demonstrated great potential in addressing these challenges; they are thin, solid membranes (up to 0.3 mm thick) used to coat food products to preserve their properties. This prevents the product’s instability and the deterioration of sensory characteristics and thereby maintains freshness and extends shelf life. In addition to protection, certain properties such as appearance, texture, and flavor can also be enhanced [15,16]. Depending on the film’s composition, the product’s nutritional properties may also be positively influenced [17]. Given their biodegradability, this form of food packaging also contributes positively to environmental conservation.

The primary component of biopolymer-based films is a biopolymer matrix that forms a continuous and cohesive layer [18]. Polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids are commonly used as biopolymeric matrices. Films based on polysaccharide or protein matrices exhibit good mechanical properties but generally have poor barrier properties. In contrast, lipids provide excellent barrier properties but are rarely used alone in film production due to their tendency to form fragile films with poor mechanical strength. Therefore, lipids are typically incorporated into polysaccharide- or protein-based films [19,20].

In addition to the biopolymer matrix, various additives are often introduced to adjust mechanical and barrier characteristics; for example, plasticizers play a crucial role in reducing fragility [18]. Plasticizers are typically colorless and odorless substances that do not affect the transparency or sensory properties of the films. By disrupting polymer–polymer interactions and promoting polymer–plasticizer interactions, plasticizers enhance film flexibility, increasing elongation at break while decreasing tensile strength and elastic modulus. They also increase water vapor permeability [19].

Glycerol is one of the most commonly used plasticizers [21,22,23,24,25], as it produces smooth, transparent, and flexible films with good mechanical properties. Other plasticizers, such as polyols, glycols, and sugars, are also used; however, their effects differ. Glycol-based films tend to be rough and opaque with poor mechanical strength, while sugar-based plasticizers enhance mechanical strength and film extensibility [19].

Beyond plasticizers, other additives, such as probiotics, prebiotics, and plant extracts, are incorporated to modify hydrophilicity, improve mechanical and barrier properties, and impart antimicrobial and antioxidant functionality [18,26].

Biopolymers as Materials for Biopolymer-Based Film Production

The use of biopolymers as materials for film production is not a novel concept. Their application dates back to the mid-19th century, when a British chemist first created plastic materials from biocellulose. Biopolymers were for the first time employed in the production of biopolymer-based films during the 1980s [27]. Today, biopolymers represent the major area of research in the development of sustainable materials for food packaging, due to their potential to surpass the properties of petroleum-derived polymers. These polymers are distinguished by their environmental safety and sustainability. Their biodegradability represents a key advantage over conventional synthetic polymers commonly used in packaging.

However, despite the significant potential of biopolymers for use in biopolymer-based film production, their commercial manufacturing remains associated with high production costs. Consequently, recent research efforts have been focused on identifying inexpensive, renewable sources for biopolymer materials [1].

Table 1. Biopolymers used in the production of packaging films.

Biopolymer	Source of Biopolymer	Additive	Key Finding	Reference
Carrageenan	Commercial carrageenan	Lapacho tea extract	Improvement of tensile strength, moisture content, and antioxidant activity with the addition of the extract	[28]
	Commercial carrageenan	Rice starch	Best mechanical properties in a starch–carrageenan ratio of 1:1 Solubility and elongation depend on the ratio of starch to carrageenan	[29]
	Dried seaweed	Starch	Good barrier properties and solubility, improvement of mechanical and barrier properties with the addition of starch	[30]
	Commercial carrageenan	Coffee ground	High moisture content and tensile strength, improvement of elasticity and reduction of moisture content with the addition of coffee grounds	[31]
Starch	Sweet potato	Gelatin	Low moisture content, swelling degree and water vapour permeability; improvement of moisture content, water vapour permeability and low opacity with the addition of gelatin	[25]
	Millet	Clove oil	Good mechanical and barrier properties; the addition of clove oil reduces solubility, tensile strength, and elongation, while increasing water vapour permeability and improving antioxidative and antimicrobial activity	[24]
	Cassava	Inulin and Lactobacillus casei	High moisture content, increased inulin content, improved mechanical and barrier properties and water solubility	[22]
	Sago	Black seed oil	Increase in film thickness, solubility and moisture content and decreased barrier properties with the addition black seed oil	[32]
Chitosan	Shells	Acorn starch, eugenol	Improvement in mechanical and barrier properties with the addition of starch and eugenol; good effect of eugenol on the antimicrobial and antioxidative activity of films	[33]
	Shrimps	Curcumin extract	Improvement of mechanical and barrier properties and antioxidative and antimicrobial activity with the addition of curcumin extract	[34]
	Commercial chitosan	Oak extract	Improved antioxidative properties of films with the addition of oak extract	[35]
	Commercial chitosan	Lime essential oil	The addition of lime essential oil improved the barrier and antimicrobial properties of films	[36]
Cellulose	Commercial cellulose	Vitamin E nanoencapsulated	Improved barrier properties and reduced mechanical properties with the addition of nanoencapsulated vitamin E	[37]
	Carboxymethyl Cellulose	Inulin, cellulose nanofibrils, Lactobacillus plantarum	The addition of cellulose nanofibrils and inulin led to deterioration in barrier properties	[38]
Pectin	Apple	Pomegranate juice, citric acid	Deterioration of barrier properties with the addition of pomegranate juice	[18]
	Pectin fraction from pineapple peel	Pectin from pineapple peel	Improved antioxidative activity and mechanical properties with the addition of pineapple peel extract	[38]
	Citrus	Clove oil	Increased film thickness, improved barrier and mechanical properties, and reduced moisture content and solubility with the addition of clove oil	[39]
Gelatin	Commercial gelatin	Ginkgo biloba extract	The addition of Ginkgo biloba extract improved barrier properties and the antimicrobial activity of films	[40]
	Chicken skin	Rice flour	High solubility, good barrier properties, but poor mechanical properties of films; the addition of rice flour improved the mechanical properties of films	[41]
Collagen	Fish skin	Sodium alginate, glutaraldehyde	Incorporation of sodium alginate led to improvement in barrier properties	[42]
Whey protein	Whey	Casein	Improvement in tensile strength and a reduction in elongation and barrier properties of films	[43]

provides an overview of biopolymers that can be applied in the production of biopolymer-based packaging, along with their properties.

Based on the available literature, it can be stated that the majority of film characteristics mainly depend on the type of biopolymer used. Films based on polysaccharides and proteins can have various limitations in use, which can be mitigated through the addition of different additives.

Research has shown that different types of the same biopolymer, as well as their combinations with other biopolymers, significantly affect the mechanical, barrier, and physical properties of the films. The formation of intermolecular bonds creates a compact network that ensures a relatively stable structure. In the case of carrageenan, a low number of sulfate groups in κ-carrageenan and the resulting negative charge lead to greater tensile strength in κ-carrageenan-based films compared to ι-carrageenan-based films [28]. The combination of rice starch and carrageenan has been found to negatively impact film strength. In the study conducted by Prasetyaningrum et al. (2024) [29], films with a higher proportion of carrageenan compared to rice starch exhibited greater tensile strength. The results showed that the best mechanical properties were observed in films made from a 1:1 ratio of starch and carrageenan, likely due to interactions between hydroxyl and carboxyl groups. Thanks to the linear arrangement of amylose in starch molecules, the number of available –OH groups capable of interacting with water is reduced; thus, the solubility of these films decreases as the starch content increases [29]. Water vapor permeability in carrageenan–starch films also declines with increased starch concentration. As starch concentration rises, strong bonds with carrageenan are formed, creating a dense network that reduces the space available for water molecule binding, leading to lower moisture content and reduced water vapor permeability [30].

In the case of starch combined with chitosan, films of high tensile strength were obtained, with tensile strength increasing with greater starch content due to the formation of a compact structure through intermolecular bonds between NH₃⁺ groups of chitosan and OH⁻ groups of starch. However, an excessive amount of starch can disrupt these interactions, leading to the formation of intramolecular bonds within the starch chain, thus decreasing the tensile strength of the films [33]. Similarly, with an increased starch concentration, water vapor permeability decreased due to the compact network formed by chitosan–starch interactions. Nevertheless, when excessive starch concentration is present, permeability tends to increase again due to intramolecular bonding within the starch chains [44].

The addition of chitosan to protein-based films can significantly improve cohesion within the internal structure and enhance mechanical properties. Protein-based films often exhibit poor mechanical properties due to protein aggregation and void formation within the network [45]. According to Ghoshal and Kaur (2023) [25], increasing gelatin content relative to starch raised the moisture content and thickness of the films. Higher gelatin content also led to increased water vapor permeability. Conversely, increasing starch concentration reduced the moisture content in starch–gelatin-based films.

Some studies have shown that combining lipids with biopolymers can deteriorate the mechanical properties of films. The incorporation of essential oils into films may lead to a reduction in their tensile strength. For instance, the addition of clove oil reduced the tensile strength of starch-based films [24], while the addition of lemongrass oil decreased the tensile strength of starch- and alginate-based films [46]. This phenomenon can be explained by the disruption of strong intermolecular bonds between starch molecules [47] and the ability of essential oils to act as plasticizers [46].

In addition to affecting tensile strength, the addition of oils can also decrease the elongation force of films. In the study by Souza et al. (2013) [48], control starch-based films exhibited greater elongation force compared to films containing cinnamon oil.

On the other hand, the addition of lipids to biopolymer-based films can significantly improve their physical and barrier properties. Starch-based films generally exhibit low water vapor permeability. The incorporation of essential oils into starch-based films, as well as into other polysaccharide films, can lead to the formation of a compact structure through interactions between starch and polyphenols, resulting in reduced water vapor transmission through the film [24,49,50].

Increasing the concentration of lime essential oil in chitosan-based films leads to a decrease in the moisture content, solubility, and water vapor permeability of the films [36]. This behavior can be attributed to the hydrophobic nature of essential oils. Covalent bonds formed between hydroxyl and amino groups of polysaccharides and the essential oil chain reduce the films’ affinity for water molecules [51].

The study by Nisar et al. (2018) [39] demonstrated that only a limited amount of lipid, such as clove oil, can be added to pectin-based films, as excessive addition negatively affects their physical properties. The combination of oil and commercial pectin exhibited a low affinity for water molecules, resulting in significantly lower values for moisture content, swelling degree, and solubility compared to pectin films without oil. Furthermore, the reduction in water vapor permeability in pectin films with added clove oil can be explained by the formation of an additional lipid network within the biopolymeric matrix, interfering with the passage of water molecules through the film.

The incorporation of essential oils into biopolymer-based films can enhance the films’ functional properties, such as antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [24,36,39]. Film properties can also be significantly influenced by additives rich in polyphenols. The reaction between phenolic hydroxyl groups from natural extracts and the hydroxyl groups of biopolymers restricts the latter’s ability to interact with water [52].

In the case of carrageenan, the addition of Lapacho tea extract reduces moisture content [28], similar to the incorporation of coffee grounds [31]. Souza et al. (2007) [53] reported that polysaccharides derived from red algae, such as carrageenan, owing to their high sulfate group content, possess antioxidant activity. Moreover, these additives significantly enhance both the antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of carrageenan-based films.

The addition of black cumin extract to starch-based films increases their moisture content and solubility. As well as enhancing moisture content, certain extracts can also elevate water vapor transmission through the films [32,54].

According to the results of a study by Ekramian et al. (2020) [32], the addition of turmeric extract to chitosan-based films significantly increased their tensile strength and reduced water vapor permeability. Turmeric extract also led to increased moisture content and solubility of chitosan-based films. However, excessive concentrations of the extract resulted in decreased moisture content and solubility, a trend attributed to interactions between the biopolymer matrix and the phenolic components of the extract [55].

Gelatin-based films generally exhibit relatively good mechanical properties, according to the study by Hu et al. (2019) [40]. However, the addition of Ginkgo biloba extract resulted in an increase in the films’ tensile strength. Interactions between the amino groups of gelatin and the phenolic compounds in the extract enhanced the rigidity of the film. Due to the hydrophobic properties of Ginkgo biloba extract, its presence in the films led to decreased moisture content and water vapor permeability.

Plant extracts, similar to essential oils, can contribute to the functional properties of films [34,38,56]. According to the results of Orozco-Parra et al. (2020) [22], the addition of prebiotics such as fructooligosaccharides and inulin also influenced the reduction of films’ tensile strength. Inulin can function as a plasticizer in edible starch-based films, as indicated by the findings of this study. The addition of probiotic bacteria did not significantly affect the mechanical properties of the films while inulin increased water vapor transmission, due to its hygroscopic properties [22].

Overall, the addition of functional components has a substantial impact on the properties of biopolymer films. Understanding these interactions is essential for the further development of sustainable and functional materials for use in the food and pharmaceutical industries [56].

4. Food Industry Waste as a Source of Biopolymers

According to the definition by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), food waste encompasses by-products and residues originating from households, canteens, hotels, restaurants, catering services, and various food industries. These materials are often difficult to reintegrate into production processes due to the high costs associated with such processes; therefore, they are mostly used as animal feed, compost, or fertilizer, while some end up in landfills—which is considered an environmentally unacceptable practice [57,58]. The main sectors generating food waste include the fish, meat, dairy, wine, fruit, and vegetable industries. The European Union has issued guidelines for managing food waste, which are based on the prevention of its generation, diversion for human consumption, use as animal feed, recovery, and integration into new industrial processes, with landfill disposal being the last resort [59].

Annual data on losses and the amount of food waste from the Food and Agriculture Organization [10] have attracted significant attention as a renewable resource for the production of polymer materials. Currently, the financial costs of producing biopolymers from conventional sources are considerably higher compared to plastic obtained from fossil fuels [60]. This has led to increasing interest in isolating biopolymers from unconventional sources. Given the high organic content in food waste—including polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and various micronutrients—there is significant potential for further processing. By applying modern technologies, biopolymers can be isolated and extracted from food waste, which can then be used to produce biopolymer-based packaging due to their favorable physicochemical and mechanical properties [61]. Waste from the food industry represents a particularly attractive renewable resource in this context. Its integration into new industrial processes could not only yield financial savings and ecological benefits but could also promote production in line with the principles of the circular economy [62]. However, isolating biopolymers from food waste comes with a number of challenges that require further research to ensure that packaging made from these materials meets food safety requirements. The properties of this packaging depend on the physical and chemical characteristics of the biopolymer itself and the type of food industry waste from which it was isolated. By optimizing extraction processes and proper pretreatment, it is possible to obtain biopolymer-based packaging that represents a sustainable and ecological solution to reducing the use of conventional plastic packaging [63].

Waste from the meat and fish industry contains proteins such as gelatin, collagen, creatine, as well as the polysaccharide chitin. Biopolymers obtained from the meat and fish industry are highly significant in the development of biopolymer-based packaging, as they not only exhibit biocompatibility and functionality but also show gelling and water retention abilities [64,65]. Collagen is one of the most important extracellular proteins from the skin, bones, tendons, and cartilage of animals. It is crucial for the mechanical protection and regeneration of tissues and organs. This protein is colorless, with high elasticity and biodegradability, making it suitable for the production of biopolymer-based films [66,67,68]. Collagen is partially hydrolyzed to produce gelatin, a water-soluble protein that is widely used in the production of biopolymer-based films and coatings. It is obtained from bovine and pig skins and bones, as well as from fish industry waste [13]. Chitosan is another biopolymer that can be isolated from fish industry waste, most commonly through sequential extraction [69]. It is obtained by deacetylation of chitin, a biopolymer made of N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine units linked by α (1→4) glycosidic bonds. Chitosan’s resistance to microorganisms and its high degree of biodegradation make it very interesting in the development of biopolymer-based films. Chitosan forms transparent and flexible films with good barrier properties [70,71].

The milk and dairy industry is one of the main sources of wastewater. The annual production of wastewater amounts to around 11 billion tons annually. The valorization of waste from the dairy industry would have significant ecological benefits. The waste generated during pasteurization, homogenization, and butter, cheese, and milk powder production may be an excellent source of proteins [72]. Whey, the main by-product of the dairy industry, is rarely processed in dairies. Due to its organic content, it exhibits high chemical and biological oxygen demand, making its disposal a major ecological issue [73]. Therefore, it is best to direct this type of waste towards isolating whey proteins [74]. Whey proteins can be used as biopolymers for producing biopolymer-based films, although these films show poor barrier and mechanical properties, so it is necessary to correct these properties using additives [74,75].

The fruit and vegetable industry also generates large amounts of waste in the form of peels, pulp, seeds, and damaged and unripe fruits. The valorization of this waste can be directed towards obtaining biopolymers. Inedible parts of plants such as seeds, roots, stems, leaves, and bracts, which are otherwise discarded during industrial processing, can be an excellent source of polysaccharides such as cellulose [76]. Cellulose is one of the most abundant biopolymers. It holds great potential for the development of biopolymer-based packaging due to its structure. The large number of hydrogen bonds in cellulose provides the good barrier properties of cellulose-based films; however, its high hydrophilicity negatively affects structural stability, requiring combination with other biopolymers [77]. Food waste from the fruit, vegetable, and grain industries is a good source of starch [78,79,80,81,82]. Starch is a polysaccharide whose composition varies depending on the source, but it usually consists of 15–30% amylose, a linear, insoluble molecule, and 70–85% amylopectin, a branched, soluble molecule. A higher amylopectin content improves the adhesive properties of starch, while amylose contributes to its gelatinization ability. Thanks to characteristics such as transparency, lack of odor and taste, and good mechanical properties, starch can rival most fossil fuel-derived polymers used in packaging production. The barrier properties of starch-based films are limited, and combination with other materials is required to improve these characteristics [83]. One of the most abundant polysaccharides in plant cell walls is pectin. Pectin is a polysaccharide rich in galacturonic acid, which constitutes about 70% of this polymer. Pectin can be isolated from food waste such as citrus peels, peelings of quinces, leeks, cabbage, green beans, beets, parsley roots, apple peels, carrots, and watermelon [84,85,86,87]. Biopolymer-based films based on pectin exhibit good antimicrobial and antioxidant characteristics, as well as good mechanical properties [69].

Review of Biopolymers Isolated from Different Types of Food Industry Waste

Numerous studies confirm that biopolymer-based packaging can be successfully produced based on biopolymers isolated from food industry waste.

Table 2. Biopolymers isolated from food industry waste used in the production of packaging films.

Biopolymer	Waste	Yield	Pretreatment	Biopolymer Isolation Technique	Additive	Key Finding	Reference
Chitosan	crab waste	10.1%	physical and chemical pretreatment	sequential extraction	/	good antimicrobial activity and mechanical properties	[69]
	shrimp shell waste	n.d.	physical and chemical pretreatment	sequential extraction	polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), gelatin, chitosan, zinc oxide nanoparticles	high thermal stability and biodegradability	[88]
						zinc oxide nanoparticles enhanced antimicrobial activity
						polyvinyl alcohol and gelatin improved the mechanical properties
	blue crab waste	13.7%	physical and chemical pretreatment	sequential extraction	pectin	an increase in chitosan content led to a reduction in moisture content, solubility and swelling degree	[89]
Pectin	orange peel	5.1%	physical and chemical pretreatment	acid extraction	chitosan	good mechanical properties	[89]
	lemon peel	n.d	chemical pretreatment	microwave extraction	starch, nano-titania inclusions	improved barrier properties of films with the addition of nano-titania inclusions	[90]
	residual coffee water and coffee pulp from Coffea arabica	16.1%	physical pretreatment	thermal extraction	chitosan, acetic acid	chelant-soluble pectin positively influenced the mechanical and barrier properties	[91]
						Coffea arabica pectin led to an increase in the hydrophobicity of the films
						residual coffee water and pectin exhibited the least favorable properties
	peel of Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima	23.02%	physical pretreatment	acid extraction	/	good mechanical stability and low water vapor permeability	[92]
	Arabica coffee mucilage and pulp	n.d.	physical pretreatment	acid extraction	spent coffee ground extract, bacterial cellulose	improved mechanical performance, better biodegradability, and moderate solubility with the addition of cellulose and spent coffee ground extract	[93]
	pomelo peel	n.d.	physical pretreatment	acid extraction	casein and egg albumin	high tensile strength, low elongation to break, good barrier properties and solubility	[94]
						low tensile strength and high elongation to break with the addition of casein and egg albumin
Starch	potato peel	11.52%	/	water extraction	carboxymethyl cellulose	an increase in starch content led to a reduction in moisture content and solubility, and improved barrier, but not mechanical properties of films	[95]
	cassava peel	n.d.	physical pretreatment	sequential extraction	chitosan	good mechanical and thermal properties	[96]
	potato chips by-products	33.4%	physical pretreatment	physical extraction	oils and waxes	great elasticity and flexibility compared to films made from commercial starch; positive effect on the mechanical properties with the addition oils	[97]
	potato waste	20.5%	physical and chemical pretreatment	sequential extraction	/	good flexibility and biodegradability	[98]
Cellulose nanocrystals	orange peel	27%	physical pretreatment	sequential extraction	chitosan, laurylamine oxide	sponge-like structure of films	[99]
	pea peel waste	42.5%	physical and chemical pretreatment	sequential extraction with ultrasound	carboxymethyl cellulose	increased water vapour permeability with the addition of carboxymethyl cellulose	[100]
	spent mushroom substrate	n.d.	physical and chemical pretreatment	sequential extraction	carboxymethyl cellulose, ZnO nanoparticles, mushroom powder, pretreated cellulose	ZnO nanoparticles decrease transparency	[101]
						combination with mushroom powder, pretreated cellulose, and carboxymethyl cellulose improves the mechanical properties
						mushroom powder and zinc oxide nanoparticles enhance antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
	mango waste	n.d.	/	sequential extraction with ultrasound	chitosan nanoparticle	good mechanical and barrier properties of films	[102]
Collagen	skin	n.d.	chemical pretreatment	enzymatic extraction	chitosan	low solubility and good barrier properties	[103]
	Bligon skin	n.d.	chemical and physical pretreatment	acid and thermal extraction	/	low tensile strength, elongation to break and solubility, good barrier properties	[104]
	fish skeleton	n.d.	chemical pretreatment	acid and enzymatic extraction	chitosan	chitosan improved mechanical properties	[45]
	fish skin	25–45%	physical pretreatment	sequential extraction	chitosan, orange peel extract	smooth and transparent films without antimicrobial activity; the addition of orange peel extract reduced solubility of films	[105]
Gelatin	fish skin	7.3%	physical pretreatment	acid extraction	palm oil, gum Arabic, clove and oregano essential oils	the addition of oils increased mechanical, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity	[106]
	chicken skin	n.d.	physical and chemical pretreatment	sequential extraction	starch	good mechanical properties and poor barrier properties; the addition of 10% starch films showed the best mechanical properties	[107]
	chicken skin and bovine bones	n.d.	physical and acid–alkaline pretreatment	hydrothermal extraction	carboxymethyl cellulose	good mechanical properties of bovine gelatin-based films	[108]
						poor mechanical properties of chicken skin gelatin-based films
						the addition of carboxymethyl cellulose deteriorated the barrier properties of films
	chicken claw waste	n.d.	physical and chemical pretreatment	microwave extraction	carboxymethyl cellulose	good mechanical and poor barrier and physical properties with the addition of CMC	[109]
	chicken skin	n.d.	physical and chemical pretreatment	thermal extraction	coconut oil	the addition of coconut oil improved barrier and mechanical properties of films	[110]

n.d.—not defined.

presents an overview of biopolymers isolated from food industry waste and used in packaging film production.

In searching for sustainable and eco-friendly materials, biopolymer-based films derived from proteins and polysaccharides isolated from food industry waste have attracted increasing research attention. Their application in packaging can contribute to reducing the use of synthetic polymers while simultaneously enhancing the functional properties of packaging materials. Chitosan, pectin, starch, and cellulose from food industry waste have demonstrated significant potential for forming films with improved mechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial properties. By combining these biopolymers with various additives, it is possible to optimize their characteristics, thus opening up opportunities for the development of advanced biopolymer-based packaging materials.

Chitosan extracted by sequential extraction from crab shell waste has a high degree of deacetylation, up to 92%, and a large number of free amino groups, contributing to improved physicochemical, mechanical, and antimicrobial properties of the films in the study by Do Vale et al. (2020) [69]. The addition of glycerol enhanced the films’ flexibility but also increased their water vapor permeability. The results of this study indicated the dependence of the films’ strength and flexibility on the ratio of biopolymers and plasticizers. Films with a higher chitosan concentration had higher tensile strength, reaching 28.88 MPa, while the elongation at break was relatively low (37.59%). Reducing the chitosan concentration resulted in a decrease in tensile strength (1.72 MPa) and an increase in elongation at break (58.48%). The results of Ahmed et al. (2025) [88] indicate that the addition of polyvinyl alcohol and gelatin to chitosan-based films improved their mechanical properties, with tensile strength reaching 53.37 MPa and elongation at 44.12%. These films also showed high thermal stability and biodegradability, while zinc oxide nanoparticles enhanced their antimicrobial activity. Conversely, Baron et al. (2017) [89] obtained chitosan with a lower degree of deacetylation of 80.8%. When combined with pectin isolated from orange peels in various ratios, the resulting films exhibited high tensile strength and flexibility. Since chitosan tends to produce brittle films with high tensile strength, pectin acted as a plasticizer in this context. Pectin also contributed to the films’ hydrophilicity, whereas chitosan improved barrier properties. Due to impurities in the isolated biopolymers, the films had a darker coloration. Pectin isolated from food industry waste exhibited a lower degree of esterification compared to commercial pectin [89,90]. Dash et al. (2019) [90] demonstrated that pectin obtained via microwave-assisted extraction from lemon peels acted as a complementary component within the starch matrix, enhancing the strength and compactness of the film. The binding of nano-titania particles to pectin improved the barrier properties of starch–pectin films. The films based on pectin from Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima showed good mechanical stability and low water vapor permeability [92]. Reichembach et al., in 2024 [91], showed that pectin from Coffea arabica pulp produces films with better properties compared to pectin from residual coffee water. The study of Vallejos-Jiménez et al. (2025) [93] showed that the films based on pectin from Arabica coffee mucilage and pulp exhibited poor mechanical properties and high solubility. The addition of cellulose and spent coffee ground extract led to improved mechanical performance, better biodegradability, and moderate solubility.

Research conducted by Charles et al. (2022) [95] showed that starch isolated from potato peels, combined with carboxymethyl cellulose, produced biopolymer-based films with high thermal stability but poor mechanical properties. The starch isolated from potato peel had an amylose content of 29.49%, higher than that of commercial starch. Due to its higher molecular weight, this starch exhibited stronger intermolecular interactions with carboxymethyl cellulose, reducing water absorption in the films. The denser network structure resulted in reduced film solubility (18.86%) and lower water vapor permeability (0.05 g mm/m² day kPa). However, there was a noticeable drop in the tensile strength of the films as the starch concentration increased from 58.83 MPa to 9.23 MPa, while elongation was almost halved (15.04%). On the other hand, starch isolated from cassava peels, when combined with appropriate additives such as chitosan [96], formed films with good mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties. According to the results by Dasumiati et al. (2019) [96], increasing the concentration of chitosan led to increased elongation (94.25%) and tensile strength (27.41 kgf/cm²) of starch-based films. In the study conducted by Karki et al. (2020) [98], starch was successfully isolated from potato waste collected from various geographical regions and subsequently used for the production of biopolymer-based films with different modifications and concentrations of plasticizers. The yield and moisture content of the isolated starch varied depending on the type of raw material, its physical condition, and place of origin. For film preparation, different types of starch were used, treated in three ways: native starch, hydrothermally treated starch, and acid–alcohol-treated starch. These treatments significantly influenced the structure and functional properties of the starch and, consequently, the characteristics of the resulting films. Hydrothermal treatment resulted in improved barrier properties and reduced solubility of the films. On the other hand, the acid–alcohol treatment led to partial degradation of the starch chains, resulting in films with increased transparency and elasticity but slightly lower mechanical strength [98]. Gonçalves et al. (2020) [97] suggested that films based on starch derived from potato chip by-products showed higher flexibility but lower tensile strength compared to films based on commercial starch. These results indicate that potato chip by-products can be used as a raw material for producing starch films with improved plastic properties.

Bigi et al. (2023) [99] isolated cellulose from orange peels. In combination with chitosan and laurylamine oxide, the resulting films exhibited high mechanical strength (38.1 MPa) and flexibility (27.8%) due to interactions between cellulose hydroxyl groups and the chitosan matrix through hydrogen bonding. The cellulose from orange peels also showed a synergistic effect with laurylamine oxide, leading to controlled release of laurylamine oxide and subsequently high antimicrobial potential of the film. Similarly, Wichaphian et al. (2025) [101] found that the addition of zinc oxide nanoparticles decreased transparency in composite films. These films had a very low tensile strength (4.38 MPa) and high flexibility (122.89%). However, when combined with mushroom powder, pretreated cellulose, and carboxymethyl cellulose, zinc oxide nanoparticles improved the mechanical properties of the films. Mushroom powder and zinc oxide nanoparticles enhanced the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the films through a synergistic effect. Additionally, cellulose isolated from pea husks and applied as nanocrystals combined with carboxymethyl cellulose improved film compatibility and distribution within the biopolymeric matrix. FTIR analysis confirmed interactions between cellulose nanocrystals and carboxymethyl cellulose, resulting in greater film stability. Increasing nanocrystal concentrations reduced transparency but enhanced mechanical strength (32.95 MPa) and barrier properties (4.3 g m/m² Pa s) [100]. Films based on cellulose nanocrystals from mango waste, combined with chitosan, exhibited high tensile strength and flexibility. The good antifungal effect of the film can be attributed to the presence of chitosan [102].

Collagen-based films extracted by enzymatic methods from chicken skin combined with chitosan exhibited relatively good mechanical properties. As the concentration of collagen increased, the tensile strength decreased from 36.88 MPa to 20.46 MPa, but the film’s flexibility improved from 23.20% to 29.82%. Collagen improved the UV barrier properties and reduced water vapor permeability from 3.48 to 1.96. The increased number of peptide chains in the matrix and higher degree of compaction contributed to an increase in film thickness from 49.50 μm to 34.00 μm [103]. Similarly, the results of the research by Said et al. (2016) [104] show that the concentration of collagen isolated from the chicken skin significantly affects the mechanical properties of the films. Increasing the collagen concentration leads to an increase in the number of hydrophilic components in the film, which results in the formation of a stronger film structure. This, in turn, leads to a decrease in tensile strength from 5.265 MPa to 2.277 MPa and an increase in water vapor permeability. These deficiencies in collagen-based films can be corrected by adding plasticizers such as glycerol [104]. Wang and Wang (2017) [42] reported that an increased concentration of sodium alginate in collagen-based films led to higher tensile strength but reduced elasticity. Films based on collagen extracted from fish skin, combined with chitosan and pomegranate peel extract, showed reduced solubility compared to films without these additives. Films based solely on collagen did not exhibit antimicrobial activity [105]. These findings highlight the synergistic effects of chitosan and pomegranate peel extract reflected in improving antimicrobial properties and structural stability of film properties.

The study conducted by Nazmi et al. (2017) [108] showed that films based on bovine gelatin and carboxymethyl cellulose exhibited better mechanical properties (11.80 MPa tensile strength) compared to films based on chicken skin-derived gelatin and carboxymethyl cellulose (5.53 MPa tensile strength). Ratna et al. (2023) [109] showed that the addition of CMC improves the mechanical properties of gelatin-based films but compromises their physical and barrier properties. This result is attributed to differences in the amino acid composition between gelatins from different sources. In addition to inferior mechanical properties, films based on chicken skin-derived gelatin with carboxymethyl cellulose showed significantly poorer barrier properties compared to those without carboxymethyl cellulose. However, no significant differences in water vapor permeability were found when compared to bovine gelatin films with carboxymethyl cellulose, suggesting that any permeability increase could be attributed to the presence of carboxymethyl cellulose rather than the type of gelatin. A possible explanation lies in the expansion of free volume within the matrix caused by the addition of carboxymethyl cellulose, facilitating water absorption through the film [111]. In the study conducted by Loo et al. (2020) [107], films based on gelatin isolated from chicken skin showed higher solubility (94%) compared to films containing various concentrations of commercial starch (83–88%). This effect of starch addition can be explained by the interaction between the amide groups of gelatin and the hydroxyl groups of starch, causing molecular rearrangements that prevent gelatin from interacting with water [112]. In gelatin-based films produced from fish skin, the addition of the antioxidants butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and α-tocopherol reduced the mechanical properties of the films. This suggests that antioxidants can influence molecular interactions within the gelatin matrix, affecting film elasticity and strength. Other authors [108,113] reported that the addition of palm oil as well as essential oils of oregano and clove significantly improved the antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of gelatin-based films from fish skin. Similarly, the addition of coconut oil to gelatin-based films from chicken skin significantly improved their barrier and mechanical properties. This improvement was attributed to increased hydrophobicity, resulting in lower water vapor permeability and greater flexibility [110].

Based on the reviewed studies, it can be concluded that the mechanical, barrier, and physical properties of biopolymer-based films vary significantly depending on the type of biopolymer used and the added components. Chitosan is one of the strongest biopolymers in terms of mechanical properties, particularly tensile strength, but its rigidity can cause limitations without the addition of plasticizers. On the other hand, starch exhibits good thermal stability and low water vapor permeability, but on its own, it lacks sufficient strength and elasticity, making it more suitable in combination with other biopolymers. Pectin offers a significant advantage due to its flexibility and plasticizing function, but its pronounced hydrophilicity negatively affects barrier properties unless combined with other biopolymers such as chitosan or cellulose. Cellulose nanocrystals, although they reduce transparency, significantly improve mechanical strength and barrier performance, making them excellent reinforcements in composite films. In the case of collagen, it is interesting to note that increasing its concentration improves flexibility but compromises strength, while additives such as chitosan and plant extracts can mitigate these shortcomings. Gelatin appears to be the most unstable in terms of barrier properties, especially when combined with CMC, although the inclusion of plant oils can enhance its functionality. Overall, it can be said that no single biopolymer fully meets the requirements of biodegradable packaging on its own, but through carefully selected combinations, a balance between mechanical and barrier properties can be achieved. Future research should focus on optimizing the ratio between biopolymers and plasticizers, selecting appropriate sources of biopolymers, and controlling their purity and extraction methods, as all of these factors directly influence the final performance of the film.

5. Environmental and Economic Aspects and the Sustainability of Using Food Industry Waste for Biopolymer Isolation

Utilizing food industry waste for the production of biopolymers represents an ecologically sustainable approach. Converting food industry waste into raw materials for the production of biopolymers intended for biopolymer-based packaging offers numerous benefits [114]. Primarily, this process offers a solution to the growing global problem of food waste disposal. As the global population continues to increase, the amount of food industry waste rises, along with the need for greater food production. Thus, integrating food industry waste into new industrial processes has become a necessity. Improper waste disposal promotes microbial contamination and the spread of diseases. Moreover, the decomposition of food industry waste leads to the emission of greenhouse gases, contributing to severe environmental problems. Wastewater from the food industry often ends up in waterways. Its high organic content results in elevated BOD and COD values, potentially leading to eutrophication—a process in which water bodies become enriched with nutrients, promoting excessive algal growth and causing oxygen depletion that harms aquatic life [1,73].

Innovative solutions that replace fossil fuel-derived plastics are urgently needed. The production of packaging materials from renewable, biodegradable resources that protect minimally processed foods will become imperative in the coming years. Food industry waste is an excellent raw material for isolating biopolymers that can be used either alone or combined with other materials to produce biopolymer-based packaging [114,115].

Isolating biopolymers from food industry waste not only aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals but also facilitates the implementation of the circular economy concept, leading to various environmental and economic benefits. The circular economy emphasizes reducing waste by transforming it into valuable products and preserving resources through recycling and reuse [116,117].

However, despite its promising outlook, this approach faces certain challenges. Biopolymers often have inadequate mechanical properties, low stability, and a short shelf life, necessitating additional treatments and the use of diverse technologies and materials. Variations in raw material availability or insufficient supply pose additional barriers to scaling up biopolymer production from food waste to industrial levels [1]. Intensive research, which is ongoing, may lead to promising and innovative solutions to this problem.

6. Conclusions

The review underlines the potential of food industry waste as a source of biopolymers for biopolymer-based packaging films. Commonly studied biopolymers, including starch, pectin, chitosan, gelatin, cellulose, and whey proteins, can be extracted or fortified with the utilization of various food industry by-products. These biopolymers exhibit diverse functional properties that can be improved by the incorporation of additives such as essential oils, plant extracts, or nanoparticles to enhance mechanical strength, barrier performance, and antimicrobial activity. The mechanical properties of the films vary based on composition and treatment. Tensile strength ranges from 5 to 50 MPa depending on the polymer and additives used, while water vapor permeability and solubility are influenced by the molecular structure and hydrophilicity of the films. However, more detailed quantitative data—such as extraction yields, concentrations of biopolymer solutions, and structural characteristics e.g., crystallinity and microscopic properties (determined via SEM and FTIR)—remain limited across studies. To ensure industrial applicability, future research should focus on standardizing extraction conditions, ensuring better reproducibility of experiments. In addition, the economic aspect of biopolymer extraction and film production from food industry waste should also be thoroughly analyzed to assess the feasibility, cost-effectiveness, and potential for large-scale implementation.