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Article

An Evaluation of the Rheological and Filtration Properties of Cow Bone Powder and Calcium Carbonate as Fluid-Loss Additives in Drilling Operations

by
Humphrey Nwenenda Dike
1,*,
Light Nneoma Chibueze
1,
Sunday Ipinsokan
1,
Chizoma Nwakego Adewumi
2,
Oluwasanmi Olabode
1,
Damilola Deborah Olaniyan
1,
Idorenyen Edet Pius
1 and
Michael Abidemi Oke
1
1
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Covenant University, Ota 112104, Nigeria
2
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Veritas University, Abuja 901101, Nigeria
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(7), 2205; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072205
Submission received: 2 February 2025 / Revised: 26 February 2025 / Accepted: 7 March 2025 / Published: 10 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Green Processes)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Some additives currently used to enhance drilling mud’s rheological qualities have a substantial economic impact on society. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are currently imported. Food crops have influences on food security; hence, this research explored the potential of utilizing cow bone powder (CBP), a bio-waste product and a renewable resource, as an environmentally friendly fluid-loss additive for drilling applications, in comparison with CaCO3. Both samples (CBP and CaCO3) were evaluated to determine the most efficient powder sizes (coarse, medium, and fine powder), concentrations (5–15 g), and aging conditions (before or after aging) that would offer improved rheological and fluid-loss control. The results obtained showed that CBP had a significant impact on mud rheology when compared to CaCO3. Decreasing the particle size (coarse to fine particles) and increasing the concentration from 5 to 15 g positively impacted mud rheology. Among all the conditions analyzed, fine-particle CBP with a 15 g concentration produced the best characteristics, including in the apparent viscosity (37 cP), plastic viscosity (29 cP), and yield point (25.5 lb/100 ft2), and a gel strength of 16 lb/100 ft2 (10 s) and 28 lb/100 ft2 (10 min). The filtration control ability of CaCO3 was observed to be better than that of the coarse and medium CBP particle sizes; however, fine-particle-size CBP demonstrated a 6.1% and 34.6% fluid-loss reduction at 10 g and 15 g concentrations when compared to respective amounts of CaCO3. The thermal behavior of the Mud Samples demonstrated that it positively impacted rheology before aging. In contrast, after aging, it exhibited a negative effect where samples grew more viscous and exceeded the API standard range for mud properties. Therefore, CBP’s excellent rheological and fluid-loss control ability makes it a potential, sustainable, and economically viable alternative to conventional materials. This superior performance enhances the thinning properties of drilling muds in stationary and circulating conditions.

1. Introduction

Drilling mud is critical and serves numerous purposes in rotary drilling operations. It is a multifaceted blend of fluids consisting of a primary base, such as water, oil, or synthetic liquids, as well as various materials and chemicals added during the design process to perform specific functions, such as transporting cuttings from the well’s bottom to the surface, keeping the drill bits and drill string cool, suspending cuttings when mud circulation stops, and preventing formation fluids from entering the wellbore [1,2]. Drilling fluids are also intended to decrease filtrate loss in the formation, generate thin filter cakes that plaster the borehole walls to ensure minimal fluid loss, support the drilled well’s stability, and provide well control. Although the composition of the base fluids varies, their functions are primarily consistent [3,4]. Drilling fluids and additives are vital in drilling operations and overall project expenses [5]. Environmental concerns have prompted a surge in interest in employing water-based drilling fluid, which is preferred over oil-based drilling fluid because the former is less toxic, particularly in environmentally sensitive areas [6]. As stated by [7], a key desired characteristic of drilling fluid is a minimal fluid-loss volume, which can be achieved by forming a low-permeability filter cake on the wellbore. Drilling mud with optimized properties can greatly enhance hole cleaning, helping to prevent high equivalent circulation density (ECD) and fluid losses [8,9].
Various obstacles arise during drilling operations, including substantial and continual fluid loss. Fluid loss is the filtrate lost to permeable formation because of the filtration process. The key elements influencing fluid loss are temperature, pressure, time, and permeability [10]. Fluid loss affects the filtration capability of drilling mud when penetrating permeable formations, allowing some fluid to enter the formation while leaving behind a mud cake [11]. This initial filtration is termed spurt loss, which occurs initially, and once the mud cake is formed, the subsequent filtrate loss is referred to as persistent fluid loss. negatively impacting drilling operations [12]. For successful wellbore stability, the mud must create a thin, low-permeability filter cake to seal exposed permeable formations [7]. Achieving this requires mud particles slightly smaller than the formation’s pore openings, with bridging particles accumulating at the surface and finer particles infiltrating and plunging more into the formation [1]. Effective filtration control is essential when drilling pay zones (oil/gas reservoirs) to minimize fluid invasion and prevent formation damage [12]. Reducing the environmental footprint of drilling fluids and additives is crucial, emphasizing the need for highly pure, eco-friendly, and biodegradable additives to ensure the responsible disposal of mud and waste in offshore and onshore operations [13,14]. Today, selecting drilling fluids and additives is tedious and time-consuming, considering both technical and environmental considerations [15]. Several substances are used to control fluid loss in water-based muds. Some commercial fluid-loss additives, such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyanionic cellulose (PAC), hydroxyethyl cellulose, and other polymers, exist with downsides and adverse impacts on total drilling costs, such as unreliability at circulation temperatures, which leads to disintegration which leaves residues when exposed to static reservoir temperatures for a prolonged period [6,16].
Naturally occurring polymers such as starch, soy protein, rice husk, and others have been utilized as viscosifiers and fluid-loss control agents in drilling fluids [17]; however, the most commonly used fluid-loss additives, such as CaCO3 and dry egg shells, have high carbon contents and can react with oxygen, producing CO2 when they decompose, posing risks of carbon emission. The decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) results in the production of carbon dioxide (CO2) and calcium oxide (CaO), as shown in Equation (1).
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) occurs naturally in rocks as the mineral’s calcite and aragonite, primarily in chalk and limestone. It is also in eggshells, gastropod shells, shellfish skeletons, and pearls. It contributes to CO2 emissions by thermal breakdown, weathering, erosion, industrial use, and disposal, all emitting CO2 into the atmosphere, one of the most significant greenhouse gasses contributing to climate change [3,12,18]. Although it is widely used as a commercial fluid-loss additive due to its ease of availability, it is also an effective sealing and bridging agent in preventing seepage, and significant fluid losses during drilling are controlled by its physical and chemical characteristics, which withstand pressure fluctuations, swab effects, and surge forces in the wellbore. As a result, there appears to be a concern with these additives adding to carbon emissions because they contain both CO2 and byproducts, which are greenhouse gasses that contribute considerably to the worldwide issue of climate change. To safeguard the environment and human health, it is essential to create affordable, environmentally sustainable drilling fluids and additives that ensure efficient performance in geologically complex conditions while minimizing ecological impact [19,20]. The motivation to perform more has resulted in numerous solutions, such as replacing typical mud additions with cellulosic agro-waste [3].
Recent studies have explored the use of agro-waste materials as additives in drilling fluids, owing to their accessibility and affordability even after processing, compared to traditional fluid-loss control agents. The inclusion of these materials as filtration loss control agents in drilling muds helps reduce environmental contamination while lowering the overall cost of drilling fluids [21]. Reference [22] revealed that a composite mixture of 75% sawdust and 25% coconut fiber yielded the most effective results for fluid-loss control among the tested combinations. In [23], fluid loss was reduced, and mud density was enhanced by including eggshell powder, a locally sourced and natural additive. However, beyond 20 g of eggshell, the mud properties became suboptimal compared to those enhanced by calcium carbonate. In [24], potato peel powder reduced fluid loss, enhanced filter cake thickness, decreased the yield point, and increased plastic viscosity, all without affecting the mud weight or solid content. According to [19], a 20-ppb concentration of rice husk reduced drilling fluid loss by 65% compared to 10 ppb of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). However, the increased rice husk concentration had a detrimental effect on plastic viscosity.
Cow bone (CB) is made up of 65–70% inorganic minerals, predominantly hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2), has a negligible carbon content compared to CaCO3 and dried eggshells and is primarily utilized to make gelatin. Its receipt of expanding attention is attributable to the triad benefits of affordable cost, bio-renewability, and ready availability. References [25,26,27,28] reported that CB is less hazardous, biodegrades quickly, and is environmentally sustainable. This study aims to evaluate the impact of different sizes and concentrations of cow bone powders as enhancers of water-based mud’s rheological and filtration properties, determining the effect of temperature on the mud’s behavior in downhole conditions while comparing their performance to calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a commercially available fluid-loss additive.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

All the chemicals (bentonite, deionized water, PAC-R, sodium hydroxide) were of analytical grade, and the equipment was used in the Covenant University Ota Drilling Fluid Engineering Laboratory. Cow bones were collected from a cafeteria at Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria.

2.2. Processing of Cow Bones

The freshly sourced cow bones were thoroughly cleaned with de-ionized water to eliminate impurities from the surfaces. The meat and fat components of the bones were subsequently scraped off, and further rinsing was conducted before the bone was subjected to drying in a hot-air oven (SMEW-0202, SMEW, Ahmedabad, India) at 175 °C for 4 h. The bones were crushed, as seen in Figure 1B, to remove the remaining liquid fat and then crushed to a smaller particle size (Figure 1C) with a sledgehammer [14,27]. In this state, the bones were returned to the oven and dried at the same temperature for 2 h to remove all possible moisture content. An abrasion machine (NL 1008 X/003, NL Scientific, Klang, Malaysia) was used to grind the bones into smaller powders of different sizes for 30 min, after which they were separated by a sieve (bio-based sieve analyzer BK-TS200, Biobase, Jinan, China) for accurate sizing; fine, medium, and coarse (Table 1). They were then stored in a Teflon bag for further analysis.

2.3. Preparation of Drilling Fluid

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and cow bone powder (three different particle sizes) were additives to prepare a water-based drilling fluid. The fluid was prepared in twelve (12) standard laboratory barrels; three samples, each of 5 g, 10 g, and 15 g, of the fine, medium, and coarse particle sizes of cow bone powder and CaCO3 were utilized as fluid-loss control additives to evaluate their impact on the pore size distribution and effective sealing ability of the drilling fluid, adopting the method of [23,30]. A beaker measured the ionized water (400 mL) before it was poured into the mud cup. The bentonite (25 g) was measured using a weighing balance (12,051, 0.01 gm) and poured into the mud cup, which was mixed for 5 min using the Hamilton Beach mixer [9].
A total of 5 g of barite, 0.3 g of NaOH, and 5 g, 10 g, and 15 g each of the fluid-loss-modifying (FLM) additives (as specified in Table 2) were measured with a weighing balance and mixed using the Hamilton Beach mixer (HMD200, Hamilton Beach of the USA, Glen Allen, VA, USA). The mixtures were stirred for 30 min before adding barite to the formulation. Initially, the base mud (control) was prepared to test various properties before introducing the cow bone samples with different proportions and mixing them with a Hamilton Beach mixer. Sodium hydroxide was incorporated to achieve the entire yield of the clay. Property tests were conducted before and after the thermal aging process to assess the impact of temperature on the drilling fluid [13,31]. The experiments adhered to the procedures outlined in the API RP13B-1-recommended practice for field-testing water-based drilling fluids.

2.4. Drilling Fluid/Mud Tests

2.4.1. Determination of Mud Density

The mud balance (Fann 140, Brandtech Scientific, Inc., Essex, CT, USA) was positioned on a flat surface, a table or slab, and the clean, dry cup was filled to the brim with the mud sample. The lid was carefully placed on the cup and twisted gently to secure it. Excess mud was removed through the lid’s hole, and the cup’s side was tapped to eliminate trapped gas or air. The lid hole was covered with a finger, and any spilled mud outside the cup was wiped clean and dried. The balance was then placed on the knife edge, and the rider was adjusted along the arm until the cup and arm were balanced. This process was repeated for all the samples, and their mud weights and specific gravities were recorded per API standards [2,32].

2.4.2. Determination of Mud pH

A HI 2222 Calibration check pH/ORP meter was used to determine the pH of the Mud Samples at a temperature of 27.1 °C [3,33].

2.4.3. Determination of Water-Based Mud (WBM) Rheology

The rheological characteristics of the drilling fluid, including the plastic viscosity (PV), apparent viscosity (AV), yield point (YP), and gel strength, were determined by API standards using the Fann V-G meter viscometer (Model 35). The equipment’s dial readings were documented for eight different speed settings at a temperature of 80°F. A freshly mixed mud sample was poured into the cup to properly position the cup under the sleeve (where the cup’s bottom pins fitted into the holes on the base plate). The upper housing of the rheometer was tilted back and lowered to its normal position. The knurled knob situated between the rear support posts was adjusted to raise or lower the rotor sleeve until it was immersed in the sample up to the marked line. The knob was then set to 600 RPM, and readings were taken at 300, 200, 100, 60, 30, and 3 RPM after the sample was stirred for about 5 s before each reading. This process was repeated for all the Mud Samples [24,34]. The readings at each RPM were recorded, and the Mud Samples’ plastic viscosity, yield point, and apparent viscosity were calculated using Equations (2)–(4) [15,16].
Plastic Viscosity, PV (cp) = 600 rpm − 300 rpm
Yield point, YP (lb/100 ft2) = 300 rpm reading − plastic viscosity
Apparent Viscosity, AV (cp) = 600 rpm reading/2

2.4.4. Determination of Filtrate Volume and Mud Cake Thickness

The fluid-loss test was carried out using a filtration apparatus (API Filter press), where the mud slurry was introduced into a stainless-steel chamber with a bottom opening. The test was performed at 100 psi for 30 min, adhering to the API standard procedures [14]. The process was repeated for all the Mud Samples, and afterward, the filter press components were carefully cleaned and dried.

2.4.5. Thermal Aging of Mud Samples

The OFITE roller oven (174-00) and its aging cells were used to replicate the Mud Samples’ subsurface conditions. The Mud Samples were placed in aging containers and pressurized using nitrogen gas (N2) at varying pressures up to 1000 psi. After pressurization, the samples were transferred to the roller oven, set at a temperature of 170 °C, and aged for 16 h under dynamic conditions. Following the aging process, the rheological properties were reevaluated and compared with those of the fresh samples to assess the mud’s performance under subsurface conditions [1,35].

3. Results and Discussion

The impact of varying CBP concentrations and particle sizes on drilling mud properties was evaluated, and the results obtained were compared with those of CaCO3 and validated using data obtained from previous studies and the API specification 13 A for water-based mud, as presented in Table 3.

3.1. Impact of CBP and CaCO3 Additives on pH of Mud Samples

The pH of the Mud Samples ranged from 9 to 12, indicating that all the samples were alkaline. However, higher alkalinity was observed in the CBP samples, whose pH remained constant between 11 and 12, indicating a balanced pH that could prevent reactions that could degrade the drilling mud, as shown in Figure 2. This could be attributed to trace minerals such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, fluoride, and zinc. Studies have shown that cow bones comprise 30–58% calcium phosphate and 2–3% calcium carbonate.
The calcium and phosphate ions from hydroxyapatite in the CB powder could interact with other components in the mud, potentially acting as a buffer and assisting in maintaining a stable pH [38]. This result indicates that the cow bone samples, when compared to the API standard for the pH level of drilling fluid, which ranges from 9.5 to 12.5, as seen in Table 3, are suitable for drilling operations in terms of pH levels and have a better chance of withstanding subsurface conditions that will not easily lead to drilling equipment corrosion [23,28].

3.2. Impact of CBP and CaCO3 Additives on Density and Specific Gravity of Mud Samples

The results of the density and specific gravities of the muds from CB powder and CaCO3 obtained from the laboratory experiment demonstrated the effectiveness of CBP as a bridging material due to the fiber content in CB powder, which balanced the pressurized fluids in the formation [27,39]. The results aligned perfectly with those of CaCO3, as shown in Figure 3, with all falling within the API-specified range, as displayed in Table 3. However, the density of 5 g of CaCO3 and CBP (7.1 ppg) appeared to be lower when compared to the API-specified range for mud density, which is 8.65–9.60 ppg. Generally, fluid flow can cause a kick into the well or flow to the surface without control. It can be reduced when CBP is used for drilling [34].

3.3. Impact of CBP and CaCO3 Additives on Rheological Properties of Mud Samples

Table 4 shows the rheological properties of the Mud Samples as determined using API standard procedures. The impact of increasing the concentration (5–15 g) of the different sizes (coarse, medium, and fine powder) of CBP on the rheological properties was evaluated compared to their counterparts in CaCO3.
Impact on apparent viscosity (AV). Monitoring the AV, which is the shear-thinning physical appearance of mud, is paramount to improving the cleaning efficiency of mud. The results obtained in all the samples revealed that increasing the concentration of the samples from 5 to 15 g increased the shear tinning of the mud; hence, the AV was enhanced. However, the fine-particle CBP produced the highest AV (37 cp), while the coarse-particle CBP produced the lowest one (22.5 cp) [40,41]. It was observed that both the medium- and fine-particle CBP enhanced the AV more when compared with the corresponding CaCO3. This implies that CBP can be an alternative additive to CaCO3 in enhancing wellbore cleaning, especially medium- or fine-particle CBP. An enhanced AV would enhance the retention of solids in the mud and hence improve the cleaning of the wellbore [17,42,43].
Impact on plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP). The resistance to flow in mud is an attribute of the PV of mud. It stipulates the machine-driven friction formed by the interactions of solid particles and liquids within the mud system. Hence, the higher the solid content is, the higher the PV is. This study noted that increasing the sample quantity from 5 to 15 g increased plastic viscosity (PV). The results show that CPB produced a better PV performance than CaCO3 in almost all the conditions analyzed, with the highest and lowest PV values of 29 cp and 9 cp obtained using 15 g of fine-particle CBP and 5 g of coarse-particle CBP. All the PV values obtained using the different CBP particle sizes fell within the API standard (8–35 cp). Therefore, concerns over increased drag and torque, surge and swab pressures, and possible pipe sticking would not arise. This suggests that the mud, especially with 15 g of fine-particle-size CBP, would not resist the mud flow [26]. This also suggests that smaller particle sizes of additives would enhance the efficiency of PV more than larger particle sizes [23,30,31].
A comparable trend was also noted with the yield point (YP) of the mud, as there was an upward trend as concentration increased and particle sizes decreased. CBP of all particle sizes produced higher YPs than CaCO3 in the same category. The maximum YP value of 25.5 lb/100 ft2 was achieved with 15 g of fine-particle CBP, while the lowest value of 6.5 lb/100 ft2 was achieved with the 5 g CaCO3 concentration. A higher YP is often required to enhance the fluid-carrying capacity with efficient wellbore cleanup. The YP values obtained from the CBP, which align with the API standard (5–50 lb/100 ft2), project that it is an efficient drilling fluid additive [17,24,32].
Impact on gel strength. The capability of drilling muds, carrying drill cuttings, or other weighty constituents is assessed by gel strength. Gel strength measures the electrochemical force strength of mud in a static state. As demonstrated in Table 4, the variance between the gel strength of both CBP and CaCO3 at 10 min was three times (3×) higher than that obtained at 10 s. The gel strengths of both coarse and medium CBP compared favorably with those of CaCO3; nevertheless, fine-particle CBP produced the highest gel strengths, all within the AP1 standard (maximum of 20 for 10 s and 30 for 10 min). Thus, additional pumping pressure would not be needed to resume circulation after the static state. Henceforth, the gel strength of the samples is considered progressive, ensuring effective pump pressure maintenance and wellbore stability [20,38,41]. In conclusion, the rheological properties (AV, PV, YP, and gel strength) of the coarse-, medium-, and fine-particle CBP showcase their potential to replace CaCO3 as a viscosity enhancer and fluid-loss control agent in drilling mud. All the rheological results obtained in this study align with the studies of [1,11,23,24,44].

3.3.1. YP/PV Ratio of Mud Samples

Figure 4 displays the varying values in the YP/PV ratio over a weighted quantity for CB- and CaCO3-based muds. The obtained PV and YP values were used to calculate the YP/PV ratio, the two viscosity components regarded as the best indicators of mud rheology for pump-on situations.
The muds’ YP/PV values in all samples fell from 0.59 to 0.96, indicating that turbulent flow is undesirable in high-angle wells for hole cleaning [5,45]. The velocity profile of the hole annulus shown in Figure 4 demonstrates mud stabilization and improved hole cleaning, as claimed by [46]. As a result, as the YP/PV ratio increased, so did the mud’s carrying capacity, and shear thinning behavior was evident in the mud characteristics [22,30]. The results thus establish better YP/PV ratios and pump-on situations for CBP compared to CaCO3.

3.3.2. Effect of Different Particle Sizes of Additives on Mud Rheology

The performance of additives in drilling mud is primarily influenced by two essential factors: particle size and concentration [15]. The study of the rheological characteristics of mud additives with different particle sizes was conducted to evaluate their effect on the overall behavior of the Mud Samples (Figure 5).
Studies have shown that the performance of mud additives is directly controlled by their particle size distribution and concentration, which determines their strength and the ease at which they will mix with bentonite. Additives with nearly similar particle sizes as fine-sized ones have demonstrated more substantial gel strength characteristics than larger particle samples [4,6,13,21]. The results presented in Table 4 show that the 15 g sample concentration produced the most efficient rheological properties in the mud when compared to the 5 g and 10 g concentrations. In the same vein, the effects of particle sizes on mud rheology were evaluated. The results show that irrespective of the mud additive, reducing the particle size (from coarse to fine particles) enhanced the efficiency of the mud properties, which was evident in fine-particle-sized CBP producing the highest AV, PV, YP, and gel strength values. The results obtained in the current study are similar to those obtained by [47], who found that the performance of calcium carbonate was necessarily influenced by its size distribution.

3.3.3. Impact of Cow Bone Particle Sizes on Filtration Properties

Static filtration testing was carried out on the twelve (12) drilling Mud Samples under low-pressure and low-temperature (LPLT) conditions, and the results were compared to those of CaCO3. Figure 6 depicts the filtration behavior of the Mud Samples. The CB powders exhibited a general decrease in fluid loss as the amount of each particle size (coarse, medium, and fine particle) increased from 5 to 15 g. In contrast, the decreasing trend in CaCO3 was altered at 15 g (sample E). The decrease is attributed to increased surface area, improved bridging ability, reduced permeability, and enhanced filter cake formation. Reducing the particle size of CB (from coarse to fine) significantly reduced fluid loss [12]. The percentage filtration loss of the CB particles, when compared to that of CaCO3, showed an increase in the filtration loss of the coarse- and medium-particle-sized CB. However, the fine-particle-size CB demonstrated 6.1% and 34.6% reductions at 10 g and 15 g concentrations compared to those of respective amounts of CaCO3. This suggests that to control fluid loss effectively, fine-particle-size CB powder in the range of 10–15 g can serve as a viable alternative to calcium carbonate in drilling operations [24]. Additionally, the fluid-loss behavior of the medium-particle-size CB remained within the acceptable limit (below 15 mL), the permissible threshold per API standards. These particles also exhibited strong mud cake formation capabilities, implying that water-based bentonite muds with medium- and fine-particle CB experienced reduced fluid loss in the formation. Consequently, the drilling mud’s performance was enhanced as the filtrate volume decreased. The findings from this study support the observations of [10], which noted that the finer the fluid-loss particles were, the better the mud cake deposition on the formation’s walls was. Therefore, it is recommended that pipe sticking and well sloughing risks be minimized, even during horizontal drilling [13,44].
Collagen, an organic component of CB known for its flexibility and excellent tensile strength, may contribute to forming a delicate, low-permeability filter cake that develops on the wellbore wall. According to a study by [39], collagen was extracted during the calcination of cow bone, and further analysis exhibited a substantial impact on the cow bone’s color and structural properties (crystalline nature). The ability of collagen to disintegrate into gelatin (gel-like compound) during the hydrolysis or gelatinization process may contribute to the minimal fluid loss in the formation, promoting wellbore stability and preventing blowouts. Hydroxyapatite, an inorganic component of CB’s solid structure, can be a bridging agent, sealing fractures and gaps in the formation that cause circulation loss [15,19,39].

3.4. Impact of Cow Bone Powder on Thermal Properties (Aging)

The effect of temperature on dynamic aging was assessed by examining the variations in the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, and yield point. This analysis was crucial for understanding the thermodynamic behavior of drilling muds incorporating cow bone powder (CBP) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [48]. A comparison of unaged and aged drilling fluids containing mud with CB and CaCO3 indicated an increase in yield stress, which gradually intensified as the temperature rose during aging. This could lead to significant pressure loss during circulation. However, the yield stress observed in these fluids remained relatively low compared to fluids without shear-thinning agents [35,49]. Table 5 depicts the thermal behavior of the Mud Samples at 170 °C, demonstrating that the Mud Samples grew more viscous and had more excellent rheological properties after the aging experiment was completed. The mud’s yield strength and apparent viscosity increased significantly above the recommended API range, listed in Table 3, which can be attributed to many factors, such as the increased surface area of smaller-sized particles, concentration, etc. [39].
The presence of collagen in CBP, which forms a gel-like structure in water, may aid in increasing the viscosity and gel strength of the drilling mud. In addition, hydroxyapatite in CBP is thermally stable at high temperatures, as determined by x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy analysis conducted by [27,38]. This phenomenon implies that CBP can effectively be used in deep drilling operations without degrading rapidly. The presence of calcium in bone powder also enhances the thermal stability of CB muds, making it valuable for retaining desirable qualities, especially the stability of drilling mud in high-temperature situations, such as deep wells [17,25,26].
Although some Mud Samples had their YP, AV, and PV enhanced sufficiently to hold cuttings ideally, samples with excessive YP values could have adverse effects and cause them to coagulate [18,35,42]. Cow bones containing low amounts of calcium carbonate are less likely to disintegrate thermally under subterranean conditions than calcium carbonate and eggshells, according to [26]. The bones mainly comprise calcium and phosphorus [31,48].

4. Conclusions

The quest is ongoing to source locally available, sustainable, eco-friendly, low-cost raw materials to enhance drilling mud’s rheological properties and fluid-loss control. This will improve drilling operations and encourage local content utilization, boosting economic development. This study explored the potential of using cow bone powder (CBP) as a fluid-loss additive compared to CaCO3. Both CBP and CaCO3 were evaluated to determine the most efficient powder size (coarse, medium, and fine powder), concentrations (5–15 g), and aging conditions (before or after aging) that would offer improved rheological and fluid-loss control. Thus, the following conclusions are made:
  • CBP samples showed higher and consistent alkalinity values, improving mud performance and extending drilling bit longevity.
  • The CBP mud’s high density and specific gravity made it an efficient bridging material by balancing pressured fluids in the formation.
  • Decreasing the particle size (coarse to fine particles) and increasing the concentration from 5 to 15 g positively impacted mud rheology.
  • Among all the conditions analyzed, CBP performed excellently when compared with CaCO3 with fine-particle CBP at a 15 g concentration, producing the best properties such as the apparent viscosity (37 cp), plastic viscosity (29 cp), and yield point (25.5 lb/100 ft2), and gel strength of 16 lb/100 ft2 (10 s) and 28 lb/100 ft2 (10 min).
  • The filtration control ability of CaCO3 was observed to be better than that of the coarse and medium CBP particle sizes. However, fine-particle-size CBP demonstrated a 6.1% and 34.6% fluid-loss reduction at 10 g and 15 g concentrations when compared to respective amounts of CaCO3.
  • The thermal behavior of the Mud Samples demonstrated that using them before aging positively impacted rheology. At the same time, after aging, they exhibited a negative effect where samples grew more viscous and exceeded the API standard range for mud properties.
  • Therefore, cow bone powder possesses the potential to be an eco-friendly, economically feasible fluid-loss control additive. Its utilization would not only help transform waste into wealth; further, it would also reduce environmental pollution and enable a cleaner and healthier eco-system since they are mainly discarded by burning.

5. Recommendations

This study provides prior research and implies that using cow bone powder, a bio-waste, in drilling mud mixtures has a promising future. Hence, further studies should be carried out on the following:
  • Characterizing the functional groups in cow bones using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR).
  • Conducting biodegradability experiments on Mud Samples.
  • Investigating the sealing performance of FL additives blends with various particle size distributions.
Analysis of the filter cake surface, including visual and layer inspection through micro-computed tomography (CT) scanning, offers more profound insights into additives’ effectiveness.
4.
Field-testing of cow bone Mud Samples.

Author Contributions

H.N.D.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, and Investigation. L.N.C. and I.E.P.: Methodology and Investigation. S.I.: Investigation and Project Administration. C.N.A.: Reviewing, Editing, and Validation. O.O.: Original Draft and Data Curation. D.D.O.; Original Draft, Data Curation, and Visualization. M.A.O.: Investigation and Data Curation. All authors contributed to the manuscript, providing comments and revisions. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research did not receive any external financial support.

Data Availability Statement

Data supporting the findings of this study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest, either financial or otherwise, that could have influenced the results of this research.

References

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Processes 13 02205 g001
Figure 1. Pictures of (A) freshly sourced cow bones, (B,C) crushed cow bones, and (D) powdered cow bones.
Figure 1. Pictures of (A) freshly sourced cow bones, (B,C) crushed cow bones, and (D) powdered cow bones.
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Figure 2. Effects of CBP and CaCO3 on mud pH.
Figure 2. Effects of CBP and CaCO3 on mud pH.
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Figure 3. Effects of CBP and CaCO3 on mud density.
Figure 3. Effects of CBP and CaCO3 on mud density.
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Figure 4. Effects of CBP on the YP/PV Ratio of the Mud Samples.
Figure 4. Effects of CBP on the YP/PV Ratio of the Mud Samples.
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Figure 5. Effects of particle size and concentration (15 g) of CBP and CaCO3 on mud rheology.
Figure 5. Effects of particle size and concentration (15 g) of CBP and CaCO3 on mud rheology.
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Figure 6. Filtration behavior of Mud Samples.
Figure 6. Filtration behavior of Mud Samples.
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Table 1. Different particle sizes of the cow bone and the standard range of fluid loss material (source: [21,29]).
Table 1. Different particle sizes of the cow bone and the standard range of fluid loss material (source: [21,29]).
CategoryStandard Range of LCM
(µm)		Average Particle Size of CBP and CaCO3 Powder
Fine15–2520
Medium36–6348
Coarse>6385
Table 2. Composition of water-based Mud Samples.
Table 2. Composition of water-based Mud Samples.
Mud ComponentsFunctionMud Samples
Calcium Carbonate Powder Coarse-Particle-Size PowderMedium-Particle-Size PowderFine-Particle-Size Powder
CDEFGHIJKLMN
Ionized Water (mL)Base Fluid400400400400400400400400400400400400
Bentonite (g)Viscosity modifier and fluid-loss control agent252525252525252525252525
Barite (g)Weighting material555555555555
NaOH (g)pH control agent0.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.30.3
Calcium Carbonate (g)Filtration loss
control agent		51015000000000
Coarse Cow Bone (g)Filtration loss
control agent		00051015000000
Medium-Size Cow Bone (g)Filtration loss
control agent		00000051015000
Fine-Size Cow Bone (g)Filtration loss
control agent		00000000051015
Table 3. API standard range of specifications for water-based drilling mud (sources: [34,36,37]).
Table 3. API standard range of specifications for water-based drilling mud (sources: [34,36,37]).
Mud Properties(Oilfield Units)
Plastic viscosity (PV)8–35 (cP)
Yield point (YP)5–50 (lb/100 ft2)
Apparent viscosity (AV)15 to 40 cP
Gel strength @ 10 s3–20 (lb/100 ft2)
Gel strength @ 10 min8–30 (lb/100 ft2)
API fluid loss (in 30 min)15.0 mL (max)
Filter cake≤2 (mm)
YP/PV ratio0.75–1.5 (lb/100 ft2/cP)
Density (mud weight)8.65–9.60 (lb/gal)
pH9.0–12.5
Table 4. Rheological properties of Mud Samples.
Table 4. Rheological properties of Mud Samples.
Mud SamplesCaCO3Coarse CBMedium CBFine CB
CDEFGHIJKLMN
Plastic Viscosity, PV (cp)111215912.519121825162129
Apparent Viscosity, AV (cp)14.251825.512.517.22231722.53018.82937
Yield Point, YP (lb/100 ft2)6.510127.511171216.3211219.525.5
Gel Strength, 10 s (lb/100 ft2)34723646971116
Gel Strength, 10 m (lb/100 ft2)12192391319141724192328
Table 5. Rheological properties of Mud Samples, both pre- and post-aging.
Table 5. Rheological properties of Mud Samples, both pre- and post-aging.
Rheological PropertiesCaCO3Coarse-SizedMedium-SizedFine-Sized
CDEFGHIJKLMN
PV before aging (cp)11121512.51919182012141414
PV after aging (cp)172224172317222318181924
AV before aging (cp)14.2518201812.530.53725.529.516.518.522.5
AV after aging (cp)38.545.569.556.541.539.541.54743.537.539.543
YP before aging (lb/100 ft2)6.512101172326113525917
YP after aging (lb/100 ft2)434791293745334851194158
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Dike, H.N.; Chibueze, L.N.; Ipinsokan, S.; Adewumi, C.N.; Olabode, O.; Olaniyan, D.D.; Pius, I.E.; Oke, M.A. An Evaluation of the Rheological and Filtration Properties of Cow Bone Powder and Calcium Carbonate as Fluid-Loss Additives in Drilling Operations. Processes 2025, 13, 2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072205

AMA Style

Dike HN, Chibueze LN, Ipinsokan S, Adewumi CN, Olabode O, Olaniyan DD, Pius IE, Oke MA. An Evaluation of the Rheological and Filtration Properties of Cow Bone Powder and Calcium Carbonate as Fluid-Loss Additives in Drilling Operations. Processes. 2025; 13(7):2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072205

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dike, Humphrey Nwenenda, Light Nneoma Chibueze, Sunday Ipinsokan, Chizoma Nwakego Adewumi, Oluwasanmi Olabode, Damilola Deborah Olaniyan, Idorenyen Edet Pius, and Michael Abidemi Oke. 2025. "An Evaluation of the Rheological and Filtration Properties of Cow Bone Powder and Calcium Carbonate as Fluid-Loss Additives in Drilling Operations" Processes 13, no. 7: 2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072205

APA Style

Dike, H. N., Chibueze, L. N., Ipinsokan, S., Adewumi, C. N., Olabode, O., Olaniyan, D. D., Pius, I. E., & Oke, M. A. (2025). An Evaluation of the Rheological and Filtration Properties of Cow Bone Powder and Calcium Carbonate as Fluid-Loss Additives in Drilling Operations. Processes, 13(7), 2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072205

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