Early Medieval Iron Metallurgy in the Lučenec Basin, Slovakia
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Slag from Direct Reduction the Iron Ore (Bloomery Slag)
3.2. Technical Ceramic Material
3.3. Phosphorus
3.4. Charcoal Fuel and Reducing Agent
3.5. Cluster Analysis
4. Conclusions
- Based on the shapes of the ceramic fragments and their decoration, it was possible to chronologically date the structures from which the analyzed material originated to the early medieval period (probably the 9th or 10th century).
- Based on the analyses, it can be said that the production of iron in the locality took place by direct reduction. Local bog ores were most likely smelted, and the fuel was predominantly oak charcoal.
- Some slags have an increased phosphorus content, typical of slags from “consolidation”—i.e., repeated heating and forging of iron blooms into tradable form. This assumption is not supported by archeological findings showing production facilities, such as a blacksmith’s forge.
- As only parts of the slag-covered tips of the tuyere have been preserved, this confirms that the tuyeres used were made from unfired clay. The obtained construction material of the furnaces, due to its quantity and fragmentation, does not allow any reliable reconstruction of their shape and dimensions.
- The melting probably took place in a free-standing shaft furnace with manual blowing.
- The results of the analysis document the good quality of the metallurgical process in comparison with contemporary localities of iron production in Europe.
- Despite its existence in a very turbulent period, connected with the disintegration of the Great Moravian kingdom in parallel with the migration of Hungarian tribes to Central Europe, the site did not disappear by force. The cause of its extinction was the depletion of local iron ore.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Structure No. (Figure 3) | Stratigraphic Unit (SJ) | Dimensions Length × Max. Width × Depth | Orientation of the Structure |
---|---|---|---|
1/2017 (a) | 1003/5000 | 550 cm × 200 cm × 40 cm | N–S |
2/2017 (b) | 1004/5001 | 175 cm × 124 cm × 42 cm | NE–SW |
3/2017 (c) | 1005/5002 | 45 cm × 36 cm × 12 cm | NE–SW |
4/2017 (d) | 1006/5003 | ∅ 75 cm × 14 cm | - |
SJ | Sample No. | Oxide Content in Analyzed Slags [wt.%] | B | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FeO | SiO2 | CaO | MgO | Al2O3 | MnO | |||
1003/5000 | P413 | 79.12 | 11.35 | 3.00 | 0.40 | 2.06 | 0.60 | 0.30 |
1003/5000 | P414 | 67.45 | 22.65 | 4.6 | 0.30 | 4.08 | 0.54 | 0.22 |
1004/5001 | P418 | 48.06 | 30.64 | 2.01 | 0.55 | 9.58 | 3.06 | 0.08 |
1004/5001 | P419 | 55.55 | 25.68 | 2.57 | 0.58 | 6.43 | 2.32 | 0.12 |
1004/5001 | P420 | 59.57 | 21.00 | 1.55 | 0.33 | 9.07 | 0.68 | 0.09 |
1004/5001 | P423 | 56.10 | 17.70 | 2.04 | 0.43 | 3.80 | 0.55 | 0.14 |
1004/5001 | P424 | 66.80 | 9.42 | 1.78 | 0.50 | 2.02 | 0.40 | 0.24 |
SJ | Sample No. | Content in Analyzed Slags [wt.%] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
P2O5 | S | K2O | ||
1003/5000 | P409 | 1.33 | 0.070 | N |
1003/5000 | P417 | 1.04 | 0.060 | N |
1004/5001 | P418 | 0.88 | 0.056 | 0.62 |
1004/5001 | P421 | 1.00 | 0.290 | N |
1004/5001 | P425 | 1.62 | 0.081 | 0.68 |
Sample No. | Minor Elements (0.01–1%) | Trace Elements (0.0001–0.01%) |
---|---|---|
P409 | Mn Cu Ag Zn Sb Mo V Cr | Ni Co Sn |
P410 | Mn Zn Pb V | Cu Ni Co Ag Sn |
P413 | Mn Cu V | Ag Sn Zn |
P414 | Mn Cu V | Ag Zn |
P417 | Mn Zn V Cr | Cu Ni Co Ag |
P418 | Mn Zn V | Cu Ni Co Ag Sn Cr |
P419 | Mn Cu Zn V | Ag Sn |
P420 | Mn Cu Zn V | Ag Sn Mo |
P421 | Mn Cu Ag Zn | Ni Co Sn V |
P423 | Mn Cu Zn V | Co Ag Sn Pb |
P424 | Mn Cu Zn V | Ag Sn |
P425 | Mn Zn V | Cu Ni Co Ag Sn |
SJ | Sample No. | Process Attribution | Wüstite [vol.%] | Metallic Iron [vol.%] | Magnetic Properties |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1003/5000 | P406 | Bloomery | Low/absent | - | No |
1003/5000 | P412 | Bloomery | Low/absent | - | No |
1003/5000 | P414 | Bloomery | 2.9 | - | No |
1004/5001 | P418 | Bloomery | Low/absent | - | No |
1004/5001 | P420 | Bloomery | 11.1 | - | No |
1003/5000 | P408 | Bloomery | 18.8 | - | No |
1003/5000 | P409 | Bloomery | 9.5–20.3 | - | No |
1003/5000 | P411 | Bloomery | 9.5–20.3 | - | No |
1003/5000 | P417 | Bloomery | 9.5–20.3 | - | No |
1004/5001 | P419 | Bloomery | 1.8 | - | No |
1004/5001 | P422 | Bloomery | 17.6 | - | No |
1004/5001 | P423 | Bloomery | 18.9 | - | No |
1003/5000 | P413 | Reheating | 63.3 | - | Yes |
1004/5001 | P421 | Reheating | 44.6 | 2.0 | Yes |
1004/5001 | P424 | Reheating | 19–35 | - | Yes |
1004/5001 | P425 | Reheating | 13–41 | - | Yes |
Sample No. | Representation of Fe and Oxides in Analyzed Slag [wt.%] | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fetotsl | SiO2 | CaO | MgO | Al2O3 | K2O | P2O5 | S | |
P410 | 14.7 | 55.9 | 2 | 1.5 | 8.2 | 2.1 | 0.93 | 0.054 |
Sample No. | Representation of Oxides in Ceramic Fragments [wt.%] | Loss on Ignition [wt.%] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fe2O3 | SiO2 | CaO | MgO | Al2O3 | Na2O | K2O | ||
P410-K | 9.3 | 60.3 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 19.8 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 6.3 |
P415-K | 6.3 | 63.3 | 5.3 | 0.9 | 16.3 | 0.6 | 1.4 | 5.9 |
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Petrík, J.; Futáš, P.; Plešingerová, B.; Blaško, P.; Pribulová, A.; Vadasz, P. Early Medieval Iron Metallurgy in the Lučenec Basin, Slovakia. Processes 2025, 13, 2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072104
Petrík J, Futáš P, Plešingerová B, Blaško P, Pribulová A, Vadasz P. Early Medieval Iron Metallurgy in the Lučenec Basin, Slovakia. Processes. 2025; 13(7):2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072104
Chicago/Turabian StylePetrík, Jozef, Peter Futáš, Beatrice Plešingerová, Peter Blaško, Alena Pribulová, and Pavol Vadasz. 2025. "Early Medieval Iron Metallurgy in the Lučenec Basin, Slovakia" Processes 13, no. 7: 2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072104
APA StylePetrík, J., Futáš, P., Plešingerová, B., Blaško, P., Pribulová, A., & Vadasz, P. (2025). Early Medieval Iron Metallurgy in the Lučenec Basin, Slovakia. Processes, 13(7), 2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072104