Innovative Applications of Sugarcane Bagasse in the Global Sugarcane Industry

Abstract

Sugarcane bagasse (SCB), a major byproduct of the sugar industry produced in millions of tons annually, is traditionally burned for energy but holds untapped potential for sustainable valorization amid global shifts toward renewable resources and reduced fossil fuel reliance. This review synthesizes recent advancements in SCB applications beyond energy, emphasizing bioenergy, bioplastics, construction materials, and agriculture to advance circular economy principles—addressing a gap in the existing literature by providing a holistic, comparative analysis of processing technologies, including their efficiency, costs, and scalability, which prior reviews have overlooked. Drawing from scientific literature, industry reports, case studies, and datasets, we evaluate SCB’s composition (40–50% cellulose, 25–30% hemicellulose, 20–25% lignin) and processing methods (e.g., pretreatment, hydrolysis, gasification, pyrolysis). Key findings highlight versatile applications: bioethanol production yielding 40–70% GHG reductions per life cycle assessments; pulp/paper substitution reducing water and chemical use; nanocellulose composites for automotive and medical sectors; particleboard and ash-cement in construction cutting deforestation and carbon footprints by ~20%; and biochar/processed feed enhancing crop yields by 25% while amending soil. Unlike previous reviews focused on isolated applications, this work integrates environmental, economic, and regulatory insights, identifying challenges like standardization gaps and proposing pathways for commercialization to drive scalable, green industry transitions. Continued research and policy support are essential for realizing SCB’s role in sustainable development.

1. Introduction

1.1. Context and Significance of the Topic

The ongoing global effort to find sustainable, clean, and renewable alternatives to meet the rising demand for materials and energy, while simultaneously reducing dependence on fossil fuels, has highlighted sugarcane as a strategic raw material. Cultivated in over 100 countries, the sugarcane has significant potential to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this context, the production of bio-based materials and biofuels, along with their efficient utilization, represents key avenues toward achieving sustainable development goals. As noted by Sheikhdavoodi et al. (2015), energy security and environmental protection remain among the most critical long-term challenges facing humanity [1].

Lignocellulosic biomass such as sugarcane bagasse (SCB), corn stover, cereal straw, and forest residues (birch, eucalyptus) is notable for its high energy density, making it an essential resource in addressing the imminent energy crisis [2,3]. These plant-based residues are the most abundant renewable resources globally, with an estimated annual production of approximately 1010 million tons [4].

Global sugarcane production reached approximately 1.95 billion metric tons in 2023, generating an estimated 540–585 million tons of bagasse annually (primarily in Brazil, India, and China, which together account for ~80% of output) [5,6]. This update from FAO’s 2023 Statistical Yearbook reflects a 22% increase since 2020, driven by yield improvements in tropical regions, though climate variability and land constraints may temper future growth [7,8]. The proper management of this volume is critical to avoid environmental burdens, with valorization pathways offering opportunities for waste minimization.

1.2. Problem Statement and Challenges

SCB is characterized by a substantial chemical composition containing 40–50% cellulose, 25–30% hemicellulose, and 20–25% lignin, with negligible ash and extractives [9].The complex bonds between lignin and polysaccharides hinder direct breakdown into simple sugars, requiring efficient, non-destructive pretreatment methods to isolate lignin and facilitate its conversion into valuable products [10]. These processes aim to disrupt the cell–matrix, producing high-quality fermentable sugars suitable for bioenergy applications such as bioethanol, biogas, or biohydrogen [11].

Furthermore, SCB valorization extends to manufacturing bricks, ceramics, cement additives, reinforced composites, and bioplastics, as well as energy generation via pyrolysis or gasification. These diverse applications underscore SCB’s significant potential as a sustainable resource. However, optimizing pretreatment techniques remains crucial to maximize its use for bioenergy and value-added products, necessitating ongoing research over the past two decades to evaluate the influence of various processing methodologies.

In the sugar industry, modifying the physical and chemical properties of SCB is vital for its industrial applications. Delignification—the removal of lignin—enhances biomass enzymatic digestibility for biofuel production. This can be achieved via chemical methods, notably alkaline treatments like soda (NaOH) or hybrid acid/alkali processes, which efficiently release reducing sugars necessary for fermentation [12,13]. Process parameters such as temperature and alkali concentration (e.g., 0.5 M Na₂CO₃ at 140 °C) are optimized to improve yield, reduce costs, and minimize environmental impact [14].

The hydrolysis stage, which precedes biofuel or bioproduct production, involves breaking down polysaccharides into simple sugars. Enzymatic hydrolysis using cellulases from microorganisms like Trichoderma reesei can produce substantial glucose yields under moderate conditions (40–50 °C, pH 4.8–6.0, over 72 h). Alternatively, dilute acid hydrolysis with weak acids such as sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) allows faster processing, often without prior pretreatment, and maximizes fermentable sugar recovery [15,16].

The resulting sugars can then undergo fermentation to produce various biofuels, including bioethanol and biogas (methanization), as well as biochemicals like xylitol and biobutanol. Microorganisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Clostridium spp. have demonstrated promising results in renewable energy sectors [12,17]. Additionally, SCB enables the synthesis of biomolecules like biohydrogen—a clean energy carrier—and biobutanol, which is considered a more effective fuel than ethanol and offers significant GHG reduction potential [18,19].

In the broader context, lignocellulosic biomass facilitates the production of diverse bioproducts, such as organic acids (lactic, succinic, citric), derived from enzymatic hydrolysis or fermentation. These resources support a circular economy model by utilizing agricultural residues like molasses, straw, and corn husks as cost-effective carbon sources, thereby avoiding competition with food production [2,20,21]. Such strategies are vital for advancing the bioeconomy and transitioning toward more sustainable, less fossil fuel-dependent industries.

1.3. Objectives of the Review

This review aims to synthesize recent research advancements related to the innovative applications of sugarcane bagasse beyond energy generation. It focuses on processing techniques, product development, and environmental and economic impacts. By analyzing scientific publications, industry reports, and case studies, the study seeks to identify pathways for sustainable and innovative utilization of this renewable resource.

1.4. Scope of the Study

The scope incorporates a comprehensive investigation of applications such as bioenergy (bioethanol, biogas, biohydrogen), bioplastics, construction materials, and agricultural uses. It evaluates processing methods, compositional factors, environmental benefits, and economic viability. Finally, it underscores the importance of continuous research and technological advancement to fully harness the potential of sugarcane bagasse within a sustainable development framework.

• Justification and need for this review

In spite of the broad body of research on sugarcane bagasse valorization, several limitations persist in the current literature. Many studies focus narrowly on specific processes or applications without providing an integrated, comprehensive overview of the diverse valorization pathways. Additionally, technological advancements such as improvements in bioprocessing, composite materials, and bioplastics are progressing rapidly, requiring regular updates to assess their maturity, scalability, and environmental impacts. Furthermore, few reviews offer a systematic comparison of processing methods, considering factors like efficiency, cost, environmental sustainability, and potential for industrial implementation on a global scale. This highlights the need for a new, comprehensive review that consolidates recent developments, compares different technologies, and identifies gaps and challenges in the field. The added value of this article lies in providing a holistic analysis of the latest developments, including novel processes, technological breakthroughs, and sustainable approaches, while offering a clear comparative perspective. It aims to serve as a key guide for researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers by delivering an up-to-date, critical synthesis of the state-of-the-art in sugarcane bagasse valorization, ultimately supporting the transition towards more sustainable and integrated bio-based industries.

2. Products from Different Thermochemical Processes

2.1. Gasification (Air Gasification)

Biomass gasification is a promising method for converting SCB into syngas, primarily composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which is suitable for electricity generation, biofuel production, or chemical synthesis [22,23]. Different reactor configurations offer unique advantages and face specific challenges. The downdraft fixed-bed gasification produces high-quality syngas but struggles with efficiency under certain conditions and requires effective tar management [22,23]. Fluidized bed gasification enhances heat transfer, thereby improving efficiency, though it faces issues such as fouling and biomass bridging [23,24]. Cyclone gasifiers improve combustion stability but involve higher construction complexity [25]. Modeling approaches, such as thermodynamic simulations and exergy analyses, provide critical insights for optimizing processes by identifying key constraints and guiding improvements [24,25,26]. Lab-scale steam reforming of bagasse demonstrates potential for high hydrogen yields, but industrial applications face challenges related to tar management and energy integration [27,28].

2.1.1. Process Optimization and Innovations for Efficient and Sustainable Gasification

Ongoing innovations aim to enhance gasification efficiency and promote sustainability. Advanced pretreatment techniques, such as pre-drying and decontamination, aim to reduce tar formation [29]. Integration with combined cycle configurations enhances energy efficiency by utilizing waste heat [30]. Multiphysical models improve predictions of tar formation and optimize operating conditions. Research into reactor materials that withstand high temperatures and resist corrosion is also advancing, with the goal of improving infrastructure longevity and reliability [31,32].

2.1.2. Technical Challenges and Prospects for Industrial Development of SCB Gasification

SCB gasification shows promise but remains primarily at the research stage due to technical challenges. Tar production affects process stability, requiring costly cleaning systems [2]. High moisture content in biomass reduces efficiency, necessitating energy-intensive pre-drying [2]. The lack of standardized regulations hinders large-scale deployment and commercial viability by creating uncertainty for investors, complicating compliance across regions, and delaying market entry—potentially increasing project costs by 20–30% due to custom adaptations [33]. For instance, inconsistent syngas quality standards can lead to rejected products in energy markets, limiting integration into existing grids. Most research is limited to prototypes, with few industrial-scale projects, posing challenges for scaling up [34]. Future progress depends on a better understanding of non-equilibrium reactions to optimize syngas yields, on reducing costs, and on integrating gasification into sustainable industrial chains to support a circular economy [35,36]. To address standardization gaps, pathways for harmonization could include collaboration with bodies like ISO or ASTM to develop global syngas quality benchmarks (e.g., minimum H₂/CO ratios and impurity thresholds), pilot certification programs in major SCB-producing countries (Brazil, India), and incentives like subsidies for compliant technologies to accelerate commercialization.

2.2. Steam Reforming (Steam Gasification)

Steam reforming offers a pathway to produce hydrogen from lignocellulosic biomass like SCB, supporting carbon-free energy carriers that are critical for the energy transition [36]. SCB is less reactive than other biomass types due to its composition, with efficiency depending on lignin and cellulose content [36]. Catalysis plays a crucial role, with certain catalysts significantly enhancing hydrogen yields compared to non-catalytic methods [37,38]. Supercritical water reforming reduces tar formation, though it is less efficient than traditional catalysts [1,39]. Solar reactors lower energy consumption, producing higher-quality syngas sustainably [1]. Optimal operating conditions are critical to maximize hydrogen production while minimizing tar deposits [1,39]. Pilot studies highlight potential, but commercial applications often prioritize electricity over pure hydrogen extraction, with hybrid systems showing greater viability [29]. Industrial challenges include tar formation, catalyst deactivation, and scale-up inefficiencies [40,41].

2.2.1. Current Challenges and Prospects for Improvement in Biomass Gasification

The key challenges in biomass gasification include modest yields due to tar formation, which affects process stability and profitability, particularly in high-humidity conditions [42]. Catalyst durability, especially for materials like ruthenium or nickel, is a concern due to rapid deterioration at high temperatures, leading to high maintenance costs [43]. High temperatures and advanced systems increase initial costs, while the lack of standardized syngas quality criteria limits industrial integration [44].

2.2.2. Innovative Approaches to Overcoming the Challenges of Biomass Gasification

Research is exploring more efficient and cost-effective catalysts, including nanostructured materials and industrial waste-derived options, to improve process stability and profitability [45]. Solar and hybrid systems aim to reduce energy consumption, enhancing sustainability [46]. Low-moisture processes compatible with diverse biomass types could improve efficiency [47]. Systematic descaling and de-tarring procedures are essential to ensure operational stability and reduce maintenance costs. Large-scale experimental studies are needed to validate industrial feasibility and long-term profitability.

2.2.3. Prospects and Challenges for Biomass Steam Reforming in the Field of Catalysis

Biomass steam reforming shows significant promise in catalysis, but most studies remain at the experimental or modeling stage, with limited industrial demonstrations [48]. The challenges include catalyst stability under continuous operation, cost control for high-temperature processes, and tar management. Biomass sensitivity to initial composition restricts result reproducibility [49]. Advancing this technology for sustainable industrial applications requires significant progress in catalysis and thermal management [50].

2.3. Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis efficiently converts SCB into biochar, biogas, and bio-oils, with applications in agriculture, energy, and green chemistry [51]. The process’s effectiveness depends on operating conditions, particle size, and pyrolysis type (slow, flash, or vacuum) [52]. Two-phase processes are ideal for sustainable agricultural biochar, while specific conditions favor gas production for fuel cells [53]. Temperature significantly influences product distribution, with different temperatures optimizing biochar, bio-oil, or biogas yields [52]. Vacuum pyrolysis increases biochar yield but requires more energy, and combining SCB with certain residues can limit adsorption applications [54]. Smaller, compacted pellets enhance biochar production with less shrinkage [55]. SCB generally outperforms other biomass types in oil yield, though industrial-scale applications face thermal constraints [56].

2.3.1. Technical and Regulatory Challenges Related to the Production and Use of Biochar Through Pyrolysis

Biochar quality for agricultural or environmental applications depends on controlling specific surface area and porosity [56]. Smaller pellets increase biochar production but raise energy consumption, and tar production at high yields can impair equipment functionality, necessitating precise thermal regulation [57]. High-temperature pyrolysis, especially in vacuum or controlled atmospheres, is costly and challenging to scale up [58]. The lack of international standards for biochar and bio-oil quality hinders market entry and large-scale deployment by increasing regulatory risks, deterring investments, and fragmenting global trade—potentially stalling commercialization in regions like the EU, where certification is mandatory for soil amendments [59]. This results in higher compliance costs and limited consumer trust. Harmonization pathways include adopting frameworks from the International Biochar Initiative (IBI) for standardized testing (e.g., carbon stability metrics), regional policy alignments via UN FAO guidelines, and R&D consortia to validate biochar across applications, facilitating broader adoption.

2.3.2. Research Prospects for Optimizing Biomass Pyrolysis and Integrated Recovery

Research is focused on optimizing pyrolysis through precise thermochemical models to improve oil efficiency and reduce tar production [39]. Developing catalysts to enhance selectivity for aromatic compounds or hydrocarbons supports specific chemical applications [60]. Pyrolysis in mixed atmospheres with inert gases and water vapor can improve product quality. Integrating pyrolysis with gasification or fermentation could enhance resource efficiency [30]. Small- and large-scale studies are essential to confirm process viability, stability, and efficiency.

2.3.3. Challenges and Prospects for Sustainable Industrial Development

Preliminary findings suggest that pyrolysis can be tailored to produce diverse end products, but challenges include yield fluctuations and tar production [61]. Most results come from lab or small-scale facilities, limiting scalability. Optimizing thermal parameters, equipment design, and waste management is critical for stability and profitability in sustainable industrial processes [62].

2.4. Combustion

SCB is primarily used for combustion to generate heat, steam, or electricity, traditionally through inefficient open fires in rural settings, which pose environmental and safety concerns [63]. Modern high-pressure industrial boilers improve efficiency and emission control, particularly in sugar or biomass power plants [18,64]. Briquetting enhances density, handling, and storage, reducing pollution through uniform combustion [65]. Advanced techniques like thermo-catalytic reforming produce high-quality syngas and biochar for industrial applications [66]. Hydrothermal torrefaction enhances SCB’s thermal stability and energy density, improving fuel storage and utilization [67]. Combustion conditions significantly affect stability and emissions, requiring comparative analysis to optimize cost-effectiveness and efficiency [68,69].

2.4.1. Environmental and Economic Challenges of Combustion: Pollution, Efficiency, and Regulatory Framework

Open-fire combustion emits high levels of pollutants, contributing to environmental and health issues, while low efficiency wastes energy [70,71]. Modern high-pressure boilers and briquetting reduce emissions and improve efficiency [72]. However, managing ash and residues like tar poses maintenance and environmental challenges. Modernizing equipment, such as high-pressure boilers and pollution control devices, requires significant investment, increasing costs [18]. The lack of clear standards for agricultural biomass combustion limits large-scale adoption [73].

2.4.2. Prospects for Optimizing Biomass Combustion Systems for Sustainable and Clean Use

Optimizing combustion involves designing efficient, low-polluting boilers with ash recycling systems to minimize environmental impact and maximize energy recovery [74]. Integrating combustion with gas treatment or purification processes can produce high-purity biogas or biohydrogen [75]. Optimizing briquettes with eco-friendly binders and standardized quality ensures efficient, safe combustion [76]. Pollution control technologies, such as particulate filters and selective catalytic reduction systems, are essential for reducing emissions and meeting standards [77]. Pilot and industrial-scale validation is needed to confirm performance, stability, and profitability [78].

2.4.3. Challenges and Prospects for the Large-Scale Deployment of LPG Combustion: Pollution, Reliability, and Technological Innovations

SCB combustion is widely used domestically and industrially, but large-scale deployment faces challenges related to pollution, equipment reliability, and costs. Conventional open-fire methods are inefficient and environmentally harmful, necessitating a shift to greener systems [79]. Briquetting offers an economically viable option but requires rigorous quality control and regulatory frameworks. Advanced methods like pyrolysis or reformulation show promise but face technical and financial hurdles for sustainable industrial implementation [80].

Table 1. Comparative analysis of biomass conversion technologies.

Technique	Advantages	Disadvantages	TRL	Estimated Cost	References
Gasification (Downdraft Fixed-Bed)	High CO/H2 syngas yield, energy valorization	Tar formation, low efficiency with high moisture	3–4	600–900 $/kW	[23,24,81,82]
Gasification (Fluidized Bed)	Better heat transfer, high efficiency (70%)	Fouling, biomass bridging, thermal losses	4–5	500–800 $/kW	[24,81,82]
Gasification (Cyclone)	Improved combustion stability	High construction costs, complexity	3–4	700–1000 $/kW	[24,82]
Gasification (Modeling/Exergy)	Optimizes parameters, identifies constraints	Tar modeling difficulty, preprocessing costs	3–4	15–30 $/tonne	[83,84]
Steam Reforming (Catalytic, Ni/Ru)	High H2 yield (25–75 mmol/g), tar reduction	Catalyst degradation, high costs	3–4	800–1200 $/kW	[1,25,41,66]
Steam Reforming (Supercritical Water)	Tar mitigation, residue handling	Technical complexity, high equipment costs	3–4	1000–1500 $/kW	[1,42,85]
Steam Reforming (Solar)	Low energy use, eco-friendly	Solar dependence, integration challenges	3	900–1300 $/kW	[86,87]
Pyrolysis (Biochar for Agriculture)	Soil improvement, carbon storage	Limited yield, thermal degradation	4–5	200–500 $/tonne	[88,89]
Pyrolysis (Bio-oil for Chemicals)	High-value fuel, 63% yield at 500 °C	Purification needs, variable yield	3–4	300–600 $/tonne	[40,90,91]
Pyrolysis (Biogas/Syngas)	Renewable energy for fuel cells	Requires refining, process-dependent costs	3–4	12–20 $/tonne	[61,70,71]
Combustion (Domestic Open Fire)	Low cost, easy access	High pollution, low efficiency	2–3	<100 $/kW	[70,92]
Combustion (Industrial Boilers)	High efficiency (85–90%), electricity generation	High investment, maintenance	4–5	1000–2000 $/kW	[18,93]
Combustion (Briquetting)	Uniform combustion, reduced pollution	Manufacturing costs, variable quality	3–4	200–500 $/tonne	[94,95]
Combustion (Thermo-catalytic)	High-quality syngas, biochar production	Energy costs, complexity	3	0.5–1.5 $/L	[73,96]
Combustion (Wet Torrefaction)	Improved stability, energy density	Processing costs, specialized equipment	3–4	10–20 $/tonne	[74,97]

compares biomass conversion technologies for sugarcane bagasse, detailing their advantages, disadvantages, Technology Readiness Levels (TRL), and estimated costs, highlighting trade-offs in efficiency, scalability, and economic viability across gasification, steam reforming, pyrolysis, and combustion methods. Figure 1 compares the cost ranges of biomass conversion technologies, highlighting initial investment and operational costs for sugarcane bagasse (SCB) valorization. Figure 2 illustrates the estimated sugarcane production for the top 10 countries in 2024, highlighting the global leaders in this biomass cultivation.

3. Adsorbents

SCB is a cost-effective, abundant resource for producing adsorbents used in water and gas purification, owing to its cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose composition, which interacts effectively with pollutants like heavy metals, dyes, hydrocarbons, and volatile organic compounds [92]. SCB’s low cost and ease of processing make it ideal for environmental applications. Biosorbents are created through chemical or physical modifications to enhance surface area and pollutant binding [98]. Chemical agents like FeCl₂, NaOH, or H₃PO₄ improve adsorption, particularly for heavy metals and phosphates, with a 42% increase in phosphate adsorption capacity [93]. Activated carbon (AC) from SCB, produced via chemical activation (H₃PO₄, KOH) and high-temperature carbonization (700–900 °C), offers a specific surface area of 536.5 m²/g and a lead adsorption capacity of 140.85 mg/g, surpassing commercial carbon. For nickel, raw SCB adsorbs 73.56 mg/g, while AC achieves 111 mg/g [94]. Biosorption, an exothermic and spontaneous process, effectively removes methylene red (2 mg/g at pH 9, 25 °C) and hydrocarbons like gasoline (99%) and n-heptane (90%) [99,100]. SCB-based zeolites and nanocatalysts serve as ion exchangers and catalysts, while biological filters remove 99% of air pollutants like benzene and toluene [101,102]. In contrast, rice straw and rice husks have significantly higher ash contents (15–20%), primarily due to silica, which can pose challenges in thermal processing by causing equipment wear but offers opportunities for applications like biochar production or silica-based adsorbents [103].

3.1. Challenges and Prospects in the Sustainability and Commercialization of SCB-Based Bioadsorbents

The durability and regeneration of adsorbents remain a crucial issue, given that the sustainability of these substances after several regeneration cycles is still limited, which poses an obstacle to their economic recycling [104]. Furthermore, enhancing preparation methodologies, whether chemical or physical, necessitates meticulously controlled conditions, thereby escalating the expense and intricacy of their large-scale implementation. The porosity of the material is also a critical factor in determining its capacity for adsorption; it is therefore essential to regulate both porosity and the specific surface area in order to optimize the material’s ability to adsorb high concentrations of heavy metals [105]. In terms of scalability, the industrial production of bioadsorbents or activated carbon derived from SCB must overcome technical and energy barriers to remain competitive. Regulatory approval for the utilization of modified bioadsorbents or nanomaterials is still in development, which is currently impeding their market entry [106].

3.2. Research Prospects for Improving the Performance and Sustainability of SCB-Based Adsorbents

A range of research directions is currently being investigated with the objective of enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of adsorbents derived from SCB. The objective of enhancing modeling and synthesis methodologies is to devise techniques that augment the specific surface area and porosity of materials while diminishing manufacturing expenses [107]. The combination of SCB with materials such as clay, silica, or other biomasses in the manufacture of composites has the potential to enhance their mechanical stability and pollution control performance [108]. It is imperative to enhance the regeneration and recycling processes for adsorbents. The development of more efficient and environmentally friendly methods for their regeneration would contribute to prolonging their lifespan [109]. The recovery of by-products generated during the production of adsorbents is a strategy aimed at minimizing their environmental impact by converting these residues into new raw materials [110]. The development of innovative applications, such as incorporating these materials into air filters, membranes, or industrial and domestic equipment, could broaden their scope of application and optimize their environmental impact [111].

3.3. Development Prospects for the Large-Scale Commercialization of SCB-Based Adsorbents: Technical, Environmental, and Economic Challenges

Recent studies have demonstrated the potential of SCB to function as highly effective adsorbents, exhibiting a broad spectrum of efficacy against various pollutants [112]. However, the majority of research is conducted at the laboratory or pilot scale, with an urgent need for validation at the industrial scale [112]. The primary challenges pertain to the long-term durability, regeneration, and manufacturing costs of the adsorbents. The process of chemical modification has been demonstrated to enhance the capacity for adsorption; however, this method is accompanied by significant environmental concerns, primarily due to the substances utilized in the process [113]. Consequently, the research endeavors should prioritize the reduction of costs, the optimization of service life, and the standardization of processes to facilitate large-scale adoption [114].

4. Commercial Products Made from Bagasse

Bagasse is the fibrous residue remaining after the extraction of sugarcane juice, accounting for approximately 30 to 40% of the initial weight of the sugarcane [115]. It has been determined that approximately 280 kg of bagasse are produced from one ton of sugarcane. According to Bantacut et al. and Guerra et al., the amount of bagasse produced is influenced by several factors, including (i) the harvest season, (ii) agro-environmental methods, (iii) soil condition, and (iv) the intensity of the crushing and grinding processes carried out in the sugar mill. Bagasse is composed of approximately 48% cellulose, 29% hemicellulose, and 24% lignin, with a negligible amount of ash (less than 2%) and variable moisture content [116,117]. Bagasse can be converted into various beneficial products. This section elucidates the methodologies employed for the conversion of bagasse into various products, along with recent advancements in these techniques aimed at enhancing productivity [118].

4.1. Bagasse and Pectin-Based Composites for Food Packaging Applications

Composite materials made from bagasse are biodegradable, renewable, and suitable for a circular economy, providing an environmentally friendly solution for non-structural uses in the packaging and automotive sectors [119]. Bagasse fibers combined with pectin create eco-friendly, biodegradable films for food packaging, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional plastics with adjustable mechanical and barrier properties based on particle size and formulation. These composites, designed for flexible packaging, reduce the agri-food industry’s environmental impact [119,120]. Versino and García [121] note that bagasse particle size in cassava starch films affects mechanical strength, clarity, and water vapor transmission. Enhanced particle size improves UV barrier properties, extending preservation for packaging [122]. Huerta-Cardoso et al. [123] report that bagasse in a polylactic acid (PLA) matrix achieves peak tensile strength and impact resistance at 20% load, with optimal water absorption at 40% [124], suiting humid, demanding environments like automotive and food packaging [116]. Guimarães et al. [117] describe bagasse’s thermal degradation in three stages: moisture (100 °C), cellulose/hemicellulose (340 °C), and lignin (472 °C). Thermal stability varies with matrices like PLA or polypropylene, but nanoclay or nanographene (0.5–3%) enhances it [125,126]. These renewable composites support a circular economy for non-structural applications [126].

4.2. Technical and Regulatory Challenges in Integrating Bagasse Fiber into Polymer Matrices for Biodegradable Packaging

The integration of bagasse fiber into polymer matrices poses a series of technical and regulatory challenges [32]. Compatibility between the fiber and the matrix frequently necessitates surface treatments or the incorporation of compatibility agents such as maleic anhydride, silanes (e.g., alkylsilanes, amino-silanes), or other coupling agents, which complicates the manufacturing process. Furthermore, thermal stability represents a significant constraint, as the reduction in decomposition temperature in specific thermoplastic matrices imposes limitations on their utilization for packaging intended for severe conditions, such as elevated temperatures or high humidity [127]. Although the incorporation of nanocomposites has the potential to enhance the quality of the product, this process is accompanied by an increase in production costs [128]. It is imperative to exercise stringent control over the size and distribution of bagasse particles, as uneven dispersion or inadequate size can have a deleterious effect on mechanical and barrier properties, necessitating highly precise molding and screening techniques [116]. With regard to scaling up bagasse-based composites, especially those incorporating nanometric additives, the cost remains a significant challenge [129]. To achieve competitiveness, process optimization is imperative. From a regulatory perspective, the framework for biodegradable packaging materials is still evolving. Standards such as EN 13432, which certifies compostability and biodegradability under industrial conditions, provide important benchmarks, but the lack of comprehensive and harmonized regulations globally can hinder widespread commercialization [130].

4.3. Research Prospects for Optimizing Bagasse Fiber-Based Composites in Biodegradable Packaging

To advance bagasse fiber-based composites, a few key focuses should be addressed. First, particle size and distribution have to be carefully controlled through advanced techniques to ensure uniform dispersion within the matrix, which directly improves the mechanical and barrier properties of the final material [131]. Enhancing fiber-matrix adhesion is also vital; this can be accomplished by applying chemical or enzymatic surface treatments that improve compatibility without significantly increasing manufacturing costs [132]. Incorporating nanotechnologies, such as nanoclay or nanographene, offers the potential to significantly improve thermal stability and resistance to moisture and light, provided that nanomaterials are dispersed homogeneously and costs are kept under control. Moreover, developing hybrid biodegradable formulations by combining biopolymers like chitosan, polylactic acid (PLA), or pectin can lead to more effective and environmentally friendly packaging solutions [133]. Equally important is conducting comprehensive biodegradability and environmental testing, including studies of degradation under natural conditions such as soil, compost, or water, to ensure compliance with environmental and regulatory standards [134].

Future Trends

Looking ahead, future trends include leveraging nanotechnologies to further improve thermal and moisture resistance, designing hybrid biopolymer systems for more effective biodegradability, and optimizing manufacturing processes to reduce costs and improve scalability [135,136]. These advancements will be critical for transforming bagasse fibers into sustainable, high-performance materials suitable for a wide range of industrial applications [137].

4.4. Bagasse–Pectin Composites for Sustainable Packaging: Challenges and Prospects

Composite materials derived from bagasse and pectin exhibit considerable promise for sustainable food packaging, primarily due to their capacity for biodegradation, their cost-effectiveness, and their versatility in application [138]. The worldwide market for biodegradable packaging is expected to reach around $15 billion by 2027, driven by rising environmental consciousness and stricter regulations aimed at decreasing plastic waste. Despite this growth, the large-scale adoption of bagasse–pectin composites remains limited due to obstacles related to processing techniques, mechanical and thermal stability, and regulatory hurdles [139]. To enable broader industrial implementation, further research is essential to enhance fiber-matrix compatibility, ensure uniform nanometric dispersion, and reduce manufacturing costs [140].

From an environmental standpoint, these biocomposites offer substantial advantages, including a potential reduction in CO₂ emissions of up to 50–70% compared to traditional plastics, by replacing fossil-based materials with renewable biomass [141]. They also help decrease embodied energy—the total energy consumed over the product’s lifecycle—referred to as the “energy footprint or energy guise,” thereby significantly lowering the overall environmental impact associated with packaging waste [142]. However, their large-scale deployment remains limited due to dependence on processing methods, mechanical and thermal stability, and regulatory constraints [143]. Consequently, further research is necessary to enhance fiber-matrix compatibility, regulate nanometric dispersion, and reduce production costs, thereby facilitating industrial adoption [140].

5. Bagasse Ash as a Substitute for Cement

The utilization of ash has been demonstrated to curtail the accumulation of agricultural waste, temper the extraction of primary resources, and curtail energy consumption during cement production [144]. According to Agrawal et al. (2013), the incorporation of ash into concrete has been shown to reduce the proportion of clinker, a major contributor to CO₂ emissions, while maintaining satisfactory mechanical characteristics [145]. The financial implications of this process are contingent upon the selected treatment method, the particle size of the ash, and its compatibility with the cement matrix or other materials. The incorporation of ash as an additive or filler has been demonstrated to reduce the overall manufacturing cost of composite materials [144]. Research has indicated that partial replacement of clinker with bagasse ash (10–30%) can preserve or enhance mechanical strength while reducing environmental impact [146]. Bagasse ash can be utilized as a filler in the production of ceramics capable of withstanding temperatures of up to 1600 °C, thereby providing a local substitute for conventional refractory materials [147]. The research has demonstrated that ash can be utilized as a filler in polymer composites or glass matrices, thereby enhancing their thermal resistance and longevity [148].

5.1. Bagasse Ash: Technical, Regulatory, and Sustainability Issues in Construction

The use of bagasse ash in construction and mechanical applications presents several technical, administrative, and sustainability challenges [149]. A primary issue is the variability in ash composition and fineness, which depends on the type of fuel utilized for combustion, as well as operational parameters. This variability directly impacts the pozzolanic activity of the ash, thereby affecting the mechanical quality, durability, and overall efficacy of the final material—be it concrete or ceramics. For example, guidelines such as ASTM C618 (USA) [150] and EN 450 (Europe) [151,152] specify requirements for pozzolanic materials, including chemical composition and fineness, but these are not always tailored to the unique characteristics of bagasse ash, limiting its acceptance and application. This regulatory fragmentation hampers commercialization by raising certification costs, delaying project approvals, and reducing competitiveness against established materials like fly ash, potentially limiting market penetration in global construction sectors. Also, increasing the substitution rate of bagasse ash in cementitious networks requires careful calibration to balance cost efficiency with long-term durability and mechanical performance [153]; too high a substitution level can compromise structural integrity under certain conditions. Moreover, pre-treatment processes like smashing, crushing, or chemical activation are essential to improve ash reactivity and consistency [154], but these steps significantly increase handling costs and mechanical complexity, requiring energy inputs and additional gear, which can hinder adaptability. Variations in ash quality due to feedstock and combustion conditions lead to inconsistent performance in concrete and ceramic items, affecting properties such as quality, permeability, and lifespan [155]. Hence, establishing precise control over raw material quality and treatment strategies is pivotal to guarantee consistency, optimize performance, and meet regulatory standards [156], especially for long-term solidity in sticky or forceful situations. Thorough testing and approval are essential to ensure that bagasse ash-based materials can dependably contribute to sustainable development practices around the world [157]. To promote harmonization, stakeholders could advocate for unified standards through ISO committees, integrating bagasse ash into existing pozzolan classifications, and funding cross-regional trials to align with sustainability goals like UN SDGs, thereby boosting commercialization.

5.2. Optimization and Sustainability of Bagasse Ash for Advanced Materials

To maximize the potential of bagasse ash as a sustainable resource for advanced materials, it is essential to optimize its treatment processes, including grinding, activation, and chemical treatments, to enhance its pozzolanic reactivity [104]. The grinding process increases particle fineness and surface area, which improves reactivity and facilitates better dispersion within composite systems. Chemical activation, such as acid or alkali treatments and surface modifications like silanization, further enhances surface properties, promoting stronger bonding and tailored performance in applications [158]. Precise characterization of the ash’s composition, particle size distribution, and mechanical properties ensures consistency, repeatability, and quality control. These pretreated ashes can then be incorporated into hybrid formulations alongside fibers, nanomaterials, or support agents, which collectively improve mechanical strength, thermal stability, and durability [159]. This systematic approach influences the final properties of the materials, expanding their use in high-performance applications such as refractory materials, thermal insulators, or additive manufacturing, and supports the development of eco-responsible, sustainable solutions grounded in circular economy principles [146].

5.3. Challenges and Prospects for Sustainable Use of Bagasse Ash in Cement and Ceramics

• Environmental benefits
• CO₂ Emissions reduction

The incorporation of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) in cement production significantly reduces CO₂ emissions, addressing the cement industry’s contribution to approximately 5–8% of global CO₂ emissions [160]. Studies demonstrate that replacing cement with SCBA can reduce emissions by 3.8% to 12.3% depending on replacement levels (5%, 10%, and 15%, respectively). For instance, in a study from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, concrete mixes with 10% SCBA (SCBA-P10) achieved a 7.89% reduction in CO₂ emissions compared to control mixes, while maintaining comparable mechanical strength [161]. In the Philippines, utilizing 125 kt of SCBA annually could reduce CO₂ emissions by approximately 94 kt, equivalent to replacing 3 million 40 kg bags of cement [162]. Additionally, SCBA’s use in alkali-activated binders can decrease CO₂ emissions by up to 70% compared to traditional Portland cement production, due to lower energy requirements in processing [151]. These reductions align with global decarbonization goals and support carbon credit mechanisms like the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), where certified emission reduction (CER) credits can be earned, as demonstrated in Brazilian studies [152].

• Raw material savings

SCBA, a byproduct of sugarcane processing, reduces the demand for virgin raw materials in cement and ceramic production, promoting resource conservation [163]. Globally, cement production consumes over 4 billion tons of raw materials annually, including limestone and clay. By substituting 10–20% of cement with SCBA, the need for limestone extraction is reduced, preserving natural resources and minimizing environmental degradation from mining. In ceramics, SCBA can replace quartz due to its high silica content (up to 76.3%), reducing reliance on mined silica sources [164]. For example, incorporating 5 wt.% SCBA in brick formulations has been shown to maintain mechanical properties while reducing raw material use by 3–10%. Furthermore, diverting SCBA from landfills avoids disposal costs (e.g., USD 53.72/ton in the U.S.) and mitigates land and water pollution, enhancing circular economy practices [165]. The abundant availability of SCBA, with Brazil alone producing over 2.5 million tonnes annually, underscores its potential as a sustainable feedstock for large-scale applications [32].

• Industrial prospects and steps for Large-Scale Production
• Challenges to overcome
  • Variability in composition: SCBA’s chemical composition varies significantly due to differences in sugarcane origin, burning conditions (temperature and duration), and regional soil properties [166]. Silica content ranges from 59.2% to 87.7%, with some samples containing high levels of unburnt carbon or crystalline silica, reducing pozzolanic activity [167]. This variability complicates consistent performance in cement and ceramics.
  • Processing requirements: Raw SCBA often contains fibrous particles and unburnt carbon, requiring sieving, grinding, and calcination to enhance pozzolanic properties [168]. For instance, grinding SCBA to a fineness comparable to cement (e.g., 45 min in a ball mill) increases its reactivity but adds processing costs.
  • Lack of standardization: The absence of universal standards for SCBA use in cement and ceramics hinders industrial adoption. While ASTM C618 specifies requirements for pozzolanic materials, SCBA’s variable composition often fails to meet these criteria without preprocessing, limiting its acceptance compared to established SCMs like fly ash or slag [169,170].
  • Long-Term Performance Data: Limited studies on the long-term durability of SCBA-blended materials, particularly under aggressive environments (e.g., chloride or sulfate exposure), create uncertainty for industrial applications.

• Steps for scaling up production
• Standardized processing protocols:

Develop consistent preprocessing methods, such as controlled burning at 700–900 °C to minimize carbon content and ensure amorphous silica formation. Sieving through a 200 sieve (75 μm) and milling to achieve a specific surface area comparable to cement (per ASTM C204) should be standardized [171].

Implement quality control measures to monitor SCBA’s chemical and physical properties, ensuring compliance with standards like ASTM C618, which requires a minimum strength activity index of 75% [172].

• Regional pilot projects:

Establish pilot plants in major sugarcane-producing regions (e.g., Brazil, India, Thailand) to test SCBA integration at semi-industrial scales. These projects can validate optimal replacement levels (10–20% for cement, 5–20% for ceramics) and assess economic feasibility [173]. For example, Brazil’s 2.5 million tonnes of SCBA could replace 6% of its cement production.

Collaborate with local sugar industries to streamline SCBA collection and processing, reducing transportation and landfill costs [174].

• Development of industry standards:

Work with standardization bodies (e.g., ASTM, ISO) to create specific guidelines for SCBA as an SCM, addressing acceptable ranges for silica content, loss on ignition (LOI), and particle size [175]. This would enhance industrial confidence and facilitate regulatory approval.

Compare SCBA’s performance with established SCMs like fly ash and slag to build trust, as demonstrated in studies showing SCBA’s comparable or superior pozzolanic activity at 10–20% replacement [169].

• Investment in processing infrastructure:

Invest in scalable grinding and calcination equipment to handle large volumes of SCBA. For instance, vibrating cup mills or ball mills can achieve the required fineness for industrial use [176].

Integrate SCBA processing with existing cement plant operations to reduce costs, leveraging waste heat from kilns for calcination [177].

• Long-term testing and certification:

Conduct extensive durability tests (e.g., chloride penetration, sulfate resistance) over extended periods to confirm SCBA’s performance in real-world conditions [178]. Studies show improved chloride resistance with ultrafine SCBA, but more data is needed for ceramics.

Pursue certifications like CDM credits to incentivize adoption, as demonstrated in Brazil, where SCBA use supports carbon credit trading under UNFCCC frameworks [179].

• Supply chain integration:

Develop partnerships between sugar mills, cement manufacturers, and ceramic producers to create a reliable SCBA supply chain [180]. For example, India’s sugarcane production (83.13 MT in Maharashtra alone) offers a stable SCBA source for local industries.

Address logistical challenges by optimizing transportation and storage, ensuring SCBA quality during long-distance transport or long-term storage [32].

The sustainable use of SCBA in cement and ceramics offers significant environmental benefits, including CO₂ emissions reductions of up to 12.3% and savings in raw materials like limestone and quartz [181]. However, industrial-scale adoption requires overcoming challenges related to composition variability, processing needs, and standardization. By implementing standardized processing, regional pilot projects, industry standards, infrastructure investments, long-term testing, and supply chain integration, SCBA can transition from a niche material to a widely accepted SCM, supporting sustainable construction and circular economy goals [168].

6. Disposable Plates Made from Bagasse Pulp

The use of bagasse pulp for manufacturing disposable plates and utensils offers an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional plastic and polystyrene products, widely used in events, picnics, and takeaway services [169]. Sugarcane bagasse, a lignocellulosic fibrous residue from sugarcane processing, can be transformed into non-toxic, biodegradable materials that support waste reduction. This approach also promotes the valorization of agricultural waste, contributing to the development of a zero-waste industry. The global market for biodegradable packaging, including products such as disposable plates, is projected to reach approximately $15 billion by 2027, driven by increasing consumer demand for sustainable options and tightening environmental regulations. This growth highlights the significant economic opportunity for innovative materials like bagasse pulp. The primary advantages of producing disposable utensils from bagasse pulp include biodegradability and compostability under standard conditions, which help prevent long-term plastic pollution. Typically, raw bagasse is used directly in the production of plates and cutlery, reducing the need for complex pretreatment processes. However, to meet hygiene and safety standards, additional processes such as heat treatment, agglomeration, or chemical treatments (e.g., bonding, drying, or sterilization) may be necessary. Further development of advanced chemical and biochemical methods will enhance the production of derivatives such as paper, biochemicals, and bioethanol, expanding the application scope of bagasse-based materials [170].

Schematic Diagram: Process of Manufacturing Bagasse-Based Disposable Plates

[Bagasse] → [Pulping] → [Molding] → [Processing] → [Finished Product].

6.1. Challenges and Prospects for Bagasse Pulp Plates: Strength, Safety, and Acceptability

Plastic plates manufactured from bagasse pulp typically exhibit reduced water and impact resistance in comparison to conventional plastics, necessitating treatment or the incorporation of additives [182]. It is imperative that the pulp undergoes a drying process, followed by treatment to mitigate the risk of mold growth or decomposition during storage. Compliance with local and international food safety standards necessitates the implementation of effective sterilization processes [183]. In large-scale production, it is imperative to regulate product consistency, drying time, and the quality of the bond between fibers without the use of harmful substances [184]. While these costs are generally modest, it is essential to optimize them in order to maintain competitiveness with plastics and mitigate cost escalation in the event of increased demand [185]. The adoption of biodegradable packaging is influenced by consumer perceptions and regulatory frameworks [186].

6.2. Improvement of Bagasse Pulp Plates: Reinforcement, Treatment, and Certification

In order to enhance the mechanical properties and longevity of bagasse pulp plates, a variety of approaches can be adopted [187]. The development of compositions containing natural binders or biopolymers has the potential to enhance their water and impact resistance, thereby improving their overall performance. Furthermore, the incorporation of eco-friendly surface treatments, such as hydrophobic or anti-mold coatings, has been demonstrated to enhance moisture resistance and prolong the lifespan of these materials [188]. With regard to the manufacturing process, the incorporation of advanced techniques such as extrusion, injection molding, or low-temperature compression has the potential to reduce energy consumption while enhancing the efficiency of mass production [189]. Pulp can also be valorized by creating biodegradable composites by mixing it with other biomaterials or nanomaterials, with the aim of improving their mechanical and functional performance [190]. The development of dedicated certifications that ensure food safety and biodegradability, in addition to complying with current standards, would be crucial to stimulating their commercial integration and consolidating consumer confidence [191].

6.3. Bagasse Pulp Plates: Technical and Regulatory Challenges for Sustainable Production

The utilization of bagasse pulp in the fabrication of disposable plates demonstrates evident promise with respect to sustainability, the mitigation of plastic waste, and the enhancement of agricultural value creation [192]. Nevertheless, mechanical strength, particularly in relation to moisture, persists as a substantial technical challenge. The majority of extant studies concentrate on prototypes or small-scale production, with a need for validation at an industrial scale. It is imperative that regulations and standards be revised to ensure quality, food safety, and biodegradability. Several countries have already established stringent regulations in this domain; for example, the European Union’s EN 13432 standard certifies compostability and biodegradability [193,194], while Canada’s CSA Z317.13 standard emphasizes safety and environmental performance for biodegradable products [195]. Similarly, Japan’s Green Procurement Law encourages the use of environmentally friendly materials in packaging and food service items [195]. These examples underscore the importance of harmonized regulatory frameworks to facilitate the wider adoption of sustainable bagasse pulp plates.

7. Manufacturing Paper from Bagasse Pulp

Globally, approximately 800 million tons of sugarcane are produced annually, generating nearly 200 million tons of bagasse as a byproduct. This widespread availability makes bagasse an abundant and underutilized resource ideal for large-scale pulp production [196]. Bagasse pulp is a promising alternative to traditional wood pulp for paper production due to its renewable nature and potential cost savings [119]. Its use enhances the sustainability of the paper industry, particularly in regions where wood is scarce or degraded [197]. Bagasse residue is frequently used to manufacture recycled or lightweight paper for applications such as packaging, toilet paper, or printing paper. The production of bagasse pulp relies primarily on chemical methodologies, including soda, kraft, or sulfite, conducted in high-temperature, high-pressure digesters [198]. The soda technique, the most traditional, involves using approximately 12 to 16% sodium hydroxide at 165 °C for 15 to 18 min. Pre-shredding is essential to remove the pith, which constitutes 30–35% of the total weight, and to optimize fiber quality [199]. The fibers produced, measuring 1 to 1.2 mm, are shorter than traditional wood pulp fibers (3 mm), resulting in reduced mechanical strength, particularly in tear resistance. The pulp is commonly bleached to produce white or high-quality paper, but this process increases costs. To address this mechanical weakness, bleached or recycled conifer fibers or reinforcing agents, such as molasses, are often incorporated to improve strength and water retention capacity [200]. Papers made from bagasse pulp are primarily suited for non-structural or low-grammage applications. Although their tensile and tear strength are lower than those of wood pulp paper, their superior durability and biodegradability make them suitable for various applications [199]. These papers typically exhibit reduced tear resistance due to the predominance of shorter fibers. Water retention capacity (WRV) varies depending on the treatments applied, which affects their suitability for packaging or sanitary paper [201].

7.1. Challenges of Bagasse Pulp: Strength, Recycling, and Standardization

The presence of short and degraded fibers is a significant factor in reducing mechanical strength, particularly for high-end paper and structural applications [202]. The use of chemicals, such as soda, kraft, or sulfite, increases costs and environmental impact, particularly for liquid waste disposal [203]. Variability in pith consistency and bagasse quality, depending on season and geographical location, introduces inconsistencies into the process. The recyclability of bagasse pulp is limited due to fiber degradation, requiring additives or supplementary processes [32]. Certification for food contact or biodegradability remains unstandardized globally [204].

7.2. Optimizing Bagasse Conversion Processes for Sustainable, High-Performance Paper

Optimizing the bagasse-to-fiber conversion process is essential for developing more efficient and environmentally friendly papers [205]. Improving processing methodologies, such as shredding, bleaching, and drying, through greener, cost-effective techniques reduces the ecological footprint and enhances profitability [206]. Specifically, environmentally benign enzymatic treatments offer a promising alternative to conventional chemical methods, reducing hazardous effluents and energy consumption while improving fiber fibrillation, brightness, and surface properties [207]. Incorporating extended fibers or employing nanotechnologies, such as nanocellulose or nanoclay, is shown to enhance the mechanical strength of paper, as well as its resistance to moisture and mechanical stress [194]. Targeted chemical or enzymatic treatments can further improve fibrillation, moisture resistance, and overall durability, contributing to higher-quality products [195]. Additionally, evaluating the pith as a raw material, either as a feedstock for biochemical industries or an energy source, offers opportunities to lower production costs while utilizing an underexploited resource [208]. Finally, studies focusing on standardization and certification of bagasse paper, particularly regarding biodegradability, food safety, and recyclability, are crucial to ensure compliance with international standards and foster greater market acceptance [209].

7.3. Bagasse-Based Paper: Eco-Design Challenges and Prospects

Although the production of paper from bagasse pulp is an eco-friendly option for many applications, it is hindered by the lower quality of short fibers, moisture sensitivity, and the need for chemical treatment [210]. Ongoing research aims to improve mechanical properties while minimizing ecological impact and enhancing economic competitiveness.

Market trends

The global demand for eco-friendly and biodegradable packaging and paper products is rising rapidly, driven by increasing consumer awareness and stricter environmental regulations [211]. The biodegradable packaging market is projected to reach over $15 billion by 2027, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of approximately 7–8% [212]. This growth is supported by policies promoting sustainable materials and the shift away from plastic packaging, particularly in regions such as Europe, North America, and parts of Asia [210]. The increasing adoption of bio-based papers, including those made from agricultural residues like bagasse, reflects a broader shift toward circular economy practices [213]. Consequently, developing high-quality, cost-effective bagasse-based papers aligned with eco-design principles is a strategic focus for industry stakeholders aiming to capture this expanding market segment [214].

8. Nano-Cellulose from Bagasse

Nano-cellulose, a polysaccharide fiber derived from pure cellulose, possesses a nanometric structure (nanofibrils, nanocrystals) with excellent mechanical, optical, and barrier properties, making it ideal for composites, packaging, films, and energy storage [215]. Derived from bagasse, a byproduct containing 40–50% cellulose, nano-cellulose supports sustainable material design by recycling agricultural waste. It is produced through methods such as acid hydrolysis, ball milling, or enzymatic treatment, forming nanocrystals (NCC), nanofibrils (NFC), or microfibrils (MFC). Traditional methods often involve solvents, high costs, and environmental concerns [216]. Li et al. (2012) introduced an eco-friendly, cost-effective high-pressure homogenization (HPH) method, reducing energy use and improving dispersion in polymers [217]. Nano-cellulose enhances polymer strength, heat stability, and barrier properties and creates transparent, durable, biodegradable films with low permeability [218]. Barbosa et al. (2017) demonstrated that bagasse-derived nano-cellulose in natural rubber improves thermo-mechanical resistance and biodegradability [219]. Compatible with various polymer matrices, nano-cellulose is used in energy storage, sensors, and filter membranes due to its dimensional stability, chemical inertness, and low thermal expansion [219].

8.1. Nano-Cellulose: Technical Challenges and Industrial Issues

To enable large-scale production of nano-cellulose, developing cost-effective, environmentally sustainable, and efficient methods is essential [220]. Traditional chemical processes, such as acid hydrolysis, are effective in producing high-quality nano-cellulose but are associated with high costs, with production expenses ranging from $15– $30 per kilogram, depending on raw material and process scale [221]. These methods also pose environmental hazards due to the use of strong acids and the generation of chemical effluents requiring treatment, which increases the environmental footprint and disposal costs [222]. In contrast, mechanical or hybrid processes, such as high-pressure homogenization (HPH), microfluidization, or enzymatic treatments, are relatively cleaner, with lower chemical usage, but still require significant energy inputs, with consumption reaching 10–20 MJ per kilogram of nano-cellulose [223]. While these methods reduce chemical waste, they require further optimization to achieve uniform dispersion and consistent quality, which impacts the performance of resulting composites [224]. Ensuring surface compatibility within polymer matrices is a key challenge in industrial applications; this often necessitates surface modification treatments or coupling agents, such as silanes or surfactants, which add to manufacturing costs and complexity. Additionally, nano-cellulose must retain its properties under processing conditions—resistance to moisture, heat, and mechanical stress remains critical, especially for applications in energy storage, packaging, or biocomposites [225]. From a regulatory perspective, current standards for nanomaterials are still evolving. Clear guidelines on toxicity, biodegradability, and stability are urgently needed, particularly for applications involving food contact or energy storage. Existing regulations in regions like the European Union and the United States focus on nanomaterial safety assessment but lack specific standards for nano-cellulose, creating uncertainties that hinder large-scale commercialization [226]. Finally, the high costs associated with nano-scale production, often 10–50 times higher than traditional cellulose processing, pose a significant barrier to industrial adoption [227]. Overcoming this obstacle requires innovations in processing technology, economies of scale, and standardized regulatory frameworks to ensure safety and environmental sustainability [228].

8.2. Sustainable Production and Integration of Nano-Cellulose in Composites

The integration of nano-cellulose into composites is essential for developing high-performance, eco-friendly materials [228]. Cost-effective, solvent-free manufacturing methods—such as mechanical, enzymatic, or heat-assisted processes—minimize environmental impact and reduce costs [229]. Optimizing nano-cellulose dispersion within polymer matrices, using surfactants, compatibilizers, or surface treatments, enhances interfacial adhesion and compatibility [230]. Surface modification techniques, including silane-based agents (e.g., aminosilanes, alkylsilanes) for covalent or hydrogen bonding and titanate or zirconate coupling agents for thermal stability, are critical for uniform dispersion and strength in hydrophobic polymers [231,232]. Compatibilizers, such as maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA), bridge hydrophilic nano-cellulose and hydrophobic polymers, while surfactants, such as fatty acids or alkylamines, reduce surface tension and prevent agglomeration [233,234]. Enzymatic modifications or acetylation improve moisture resistance by altering hydroxyl groups [231]. These treatments enhance compatibility and stability for applications, such as sensors and filtration, but must align with green chemistry principles using non-toxic, biodegradable agents [132]. Eco-friendly strategies and effective compatibilizers are vital for leveraging nano-cellulose in sustainable, durable materials for energy, health, and environmental applications.

8.3. Bagasse Nanocellulose: Challenges and Prospects for the Industry

Converting bagasse to nano-cellulose holds significant promise for a wide range of applications, including composites, packaging, and energy storage systems [132]. Nevertheless, several key challenges must be addressed to realize its full industrial potential. Firstly, reducing production costs is critical, which can be achieved by developing cost-effective extraction methods, such as mechanical, enzymatic, or hybrid approaches, that lower energy consumption and minimize chemical use while maximizing yield and quality [235]. Secondly, establishing standardized, flexible protocols is crucial to ensure consistent nanoscale properties, such as size, shape, and durability, thus facilitating quality control, certification, and broader industrial adoption [236]. Thirdly, developing universal safety standards and certifications—covering toxicity, biodegradability, and recyclability—is imperative to ensure regulatory compliance and promote the use of nano-cellulose in food contact applications and other sensitive sectors [145]. Finally, fostering the development of local value chains in bagasse-producing countries, such as those in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, can stimulate economic growth, reduce reliance on imports, and support sustainable resource use, creating an integrated and robust industrial ecosystem for nano-cellulose [237].

9. Biochemicals from Bagasse

In addition to the biochemical method, involving acid hydrolysis and fermentation, a thermomechanical route can produce various chemical products from bagasse, including succinic acid, furfural, lignosulfonates, vanillin, bioethanol, enzymes, and oligosaccharides [238].

9.1. Succinic Acid

Succinic acid (C₄H₆O₄) plays a pivotal role in green chemistry, serving as a raw material for synthesizing polymers, solvents, and pharmaceutical products [239]. The biochemical conversion of bagasse, a byproduct of sugarcane processing, offers a sustainable alternative. This method involves preliminary treatment of lignocellulose, followed by fermentation using microorganisms such as Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, or recombinant Escherichia coli [239]. Lignin, typically isolated at the end of the process, can be used as a biofuel. The synthesis of succinic acid is closely linked to fermentation conditions, including pH, temperature, sugar content, and nitrogen source. Research indicates that optimizing co-fermentation of hexose and pentose sugars improves efficiency [240,241]. Genetic engineering of microorganisms to enhance tolerance to inhibitors, combined with xylose use, represents an emerging trend [242]. However, yields remain limited, typically exceeding 50%.

9.2. Furfural

As shown by Yazdizadeh et al. (2016), furfural is produced through xylose dehydration following hemicellulose hydrolysis [243]. Furfural is a key component in manufacturing solvents, additives, and fuels [244]. The conventional approach uses dilute acids (H₂SO₄, HCl), but this generates toxic byproducts and causes corrosion [245]. Alternative catalyst-free methods, such as hydrothermal or microwave processes, and nanostructured catalysts, like graphene or metal oxides, are being explored to optimize yields [245]. Yields vary significantly, ranging from 20 to 50%, depending on conditions. Inhibitor formation and product decomposition pose significant challenges. Improving catalyst cost and stability is essential.

9.3. Lignosulfonates from Lignin

Ramnani et al. (2005) produced lignosulfonates by sulfonating the liquor from alkaline digestion of bagasse [246]. This water-soluble product exhibits surfactant, dispersant, and binding properties, finding applications in water treatment, construction, and agriculture [196]. Lignin, a byproduct of the process, is often underutilized.

9.4. Vanillin from Lignin

Qi et al. (2019) demonstrated that oxidizing lignin from bagasse yields vanillin, an aromatic compound (C₈H₈O₃) used in food flavoring and as a pharmaceutical intermediate [247]. The reaction occurs at elevated temperatures in the presence of oxygen, followed by purification through extraction [248]. Converting lignin from bagasse to vanillin supports green chemistry principles. However, the process faces challenges, including low yields (generally < 30%), high purification costs, and ongoing development. Producing chemicals like succinic acid, furfural, lignosulfonates, and vanillin from lignocellulose expands the range of bagasse-derived bioproducts. Most processes are at technological readiness levels (TRL) 4–5, nearing industrial standards [249]. Yields are often modest, with costs, waste management, inhibitors, and toxic byproducts posing significant challenges [250]. Modulating decomposition or conversion reactions, particularly for vanillin and furfural, remains a challenge [251]. Ongoing research focuses on optimizing catalyst stability and large-scale process control. Industrial scale-up faces obstacles related to regulatory challenges and product standardization [252].

9.5. Integrated Biomass Valorization: Challenges and Strategies for Sustainable Chemical Production

Enhancing the stability and selectivity of catalysts used in xylose-to-furfural conversion is critical for process optimization [253]. Biotechnology can play a key role in developing efficient, inhibitor-resistant microorganisms for producing succinic acid or vanillin [232]. Optimizing the integrated valorization of lignin, pentoses, and glucose maximizes the use of biomass fractions, improving overall profitability. Integrating pretreatment, catalytic reactions, and purification with mixed techniques enhances process viability and competitiveness while accounting for economic factors [2]. Converting bagasse into succinic acid, furfural, lignosulfonates, and vanillin offers a promising avenue for the bioeconomy [233]. However, technological and economic challenges must be addressed to ensure long-term industrialization. Research should prioritize increasing productivity, improving process reliability, reducing costs, and mitigating environmental impact within controlled parameters [254].

9.6. Bioethanol from Bagasse, Sugarcane Tops and Molasses

Bioethanol production from sugarcane bagasse, tops, and molasses involves saccharification, fermentation, and distillation, offering a renewable fuel alternative [255]. Acid hydrolysis breaks down lignocellulose into fermentable sugars but generates inhibitors that reduce efficiency, while enzymatic hydrolysis targets cellulose and hemicellulose, producing fewer inhibitors at higher costs [256,257]. Fermentation typically uses conventional yeast for glucose, with specialized strains required for xylose to enhance overall yield [258]. Key challenges include optimizing sugar conversion, minimizing inhibitors, overcoming structural barriers like lignin, and managing costs and regulatory hurdles related to bioenergy certification, waste management, and emissions.

9.6.1. Optimizing the Valorization of Polysaccharides: Challenges and Industrial Prospects

Enzymatic hydrolysis and purification are costly, and efficient fermentation of pentose sugars remains challenging [259]. Understanding and mitigating inhibitor formation during pretreatment is critical for improving process efficiency. Robust microorganisms capable of withstanding industrial conditions are essential for process viability. High initial investment and adherence to stringent regulatory standards are necessary for sustainable industrial-scale production.

9.6.2. Integrated Biotechnologies for the Sustainable Recovery of Lignocellulosic Biomass

Developing microorganisms, such as genetically modified yeasts or bacteria, capable of fermenting both glucose and xylose while resisting inhibitors is a key research priority [260]. Refining pretreatment techniques, such as low-temperature hydrolysis or combined extraction methods, can reduce inhibitor production. More efficient, cost-effective, and resilient enzymes are needed to enhance process performance [125]. Integrating hydrolysis and fermentation into a continuous process could streamline operations and reduce costs. Comprehensive recovery of co-products, like lignin and organic acids, is essential for economic viability, supported by life-cycle assessments to ensure ecological and economic sustainability.

9.6.3. Production of Bioethanol from Bagasse: Technological Challenges and Industrial Prospects

Bioethanol from bagasse and sugarcane byproducts holds significant potential, particularly in regions with abundant feedstock. However, managing inhibitors from pretreatment, improving xylose fermentation efficiency, and controlling costs are critical challenges. Advances in biotechnology, process engineering, and enzyme development are necessary to enhance competitiveness and enable sustainable industrial-scale production.

9.7. Enzymes Produced from Sugarcane Bagasse

The enzymatic processing of sugarcane bagasse focuses on microorganisms producing enzymes, such as cellulases, xylanases, hemicellulases, lignases, and esterases, crucial for lignocellulose breakdown in bioenergy and biomaterial production. These enzymes enable efficient bioconversion, but large-scale production remains challenging due to high costs and the need for thermal stability and pH optimization. Diverse enzyme mixtures adapt to bagasse’s unique composition, enhancing decomposition. Advances in biotechnology and fermentation improve enzyme productivity and consistency. On-site enzyme production during fermentation or pretreatment supports cost-effective processes. However, regulatory frameworks, quality control, and cultivation costs limit standardization and efficiency in industrial applications.

9.7.1. Enzymatic and Biotechnological Optimization for the Industrial Production of Biocatalysts

To enhance their efficacy in industrial contexts, refining microbial strains and enzyme combinations is essential to improve decomposition potential. Additionally, integrating genetic engineering, large-scale fermentation, and on-site production improves cost-effectiveness and production economics. Optimizing enzyme formulations enhances their stability and reusability in industrial processes. Standardizing production, purification, and formulation processes is crucial to comply with legal standards, ensuring enzyme quality and safety.

9.7.2. Thermostable Enzymes and Co-Cultures: Innovations for Integrated Biomass Degradation

Developing thermostable enzymes resistant to inhibition is critical to improving efficiency in industrial contexts. Engineering high-productivity microorganisms or using co-culture systems can enhance enzyme production. Developing advanced enzyme cocktails for the simultaneous degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin is a priority to improve overall process efficiency. Additionally, integrating nanotechnology techniques can significantly enhance enzyme efficiency. Large-scale, cost-effective enzyme production lines are essential to ensure commercial viability and competitiveness.

9.7.3. Enzyme Production from Bagasse: Challenges and Prospects for Industrialization

Enzyme production from bagasse is a pivotal stage in its biotechnological valorization. Despite significant research advancements leading to effective strains and cocktails, primarily in academic settings, industrialization is hindered by costs, stability, and standardization. Advances in genetic engineering, bioproduction, and expertise in formulation and regulation are crucial for effectively utilizing these enzymes in the bioeconomy.

9.8. Oligosaccharides Produced

Oligosaccharides are bioactive precursors with applications in nutrition, health, environmental chemistry, and biotechnology. Producing these materials from bagasse primarily involves pretreatment techniques designed to disrupt the complex polysaccharide structure, thus breaking it into shorter chains. Various techniques have been explored, including alkaline hydrolysis, steam auto-hydrolysis, and specific enzymes.

9.8.1. Pre-Treatment Methods and Experimental Results

Applying the alkaline method with the fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus yields a conversion rate consistently exceeding 37%. This straightforward process leverages the fungus’s inherent enzymatic activity, promoting integrated valorization. Combining the alkaline approach with Pichia stipitis yeast provides an economical solution; however, conversion is limited to about 32%, requiring additional procedures to improve yield. High-temperature steam hydrolysis, without enzymes, yields less and may produce inhibitory compounds. Variable conversion rates highlight the need for meticulous control over processing conditions. Toxic or inhibitory byproducts, such as furfural and acetaldehyde, limit the recovery of oligosaccharides. Industrialization faces challenges, including scalability, enzyme and chemical agent stability, and financial constraints. Achieving conversion rates >40% is critical for industrial competitiveness.

9.8.2. Optimization of Bagasse Pre-Treatment and Enzymatic Degradation Processes: Strategies for Sustainable Industrial Valorization

Enhancing pretreatment conditions, including time, temperature, and chemical agent concentration, is essential to optimize conversion while minimizing inhibitor production. Developing or isolating thermotolerant enzymes is crucial for improving degradation efficiency. Using integrated methodologies, such as simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation or extraction techniques, enhances biomass valorization. Biotechnology offers a promising strategy to increase the resilience of microbes or enzymes to inhibitory byproducts. Implementing life-cycle analysis is vital to improve overall sustainability. Converting bagasse into oligosaccharides holds significant potential due to its benefits [261]. However, current yields, ranging from 28 to 37%, are relatively low. While steam or alkaline hydrolysis is simple, improving its efficiency is critical for industrial competitiveness. Key challenges include variable experimental conditions, inhibitory compounds, and the need for scale control. Research should prioritize optimizing conditions, advancing enzymatic processes, and integrating innovative approaches to increase productivity and reduce costs [262].

10. Bioelectricity from Bagasse and Cane Residues

Sugarcane bagasse is widely used for energy production in Brazil, India, and Thailand through cogeneration, pyrolysis, gasification, and bioethanol production, promoting energy independence and reducing greenhouse gas emissions [263]. These methods enhance sugar mill profitability and lower carbon footprints. Cogeneration and combustion achieve 30–40% energy efficiency, but high investment costs for gasification and pyrolysis infrastructure limit profitability, especially in capital-scarce regions. Managing co-products, such as biochar and tar, requires careful planning for environmental sustainability. Bagasse quality, particularly its moisture and composition, significantly affects energy yields. Strict regulatory compliance is essential to control emissions and ensure safety, while seasonal and geographical variability challenges industrial planning.

10.1. Mixed Thermochemical Technologies for the Sustainable Recovery of Bagasse

Developing mixed technologies combining pyrolysis, gasification, and fermentation is essential for optimizing the valorization of products, such as bioethanol, biochar, and biogas, derived from bagasse [264]. Optimizing the management of byproducts, particularly using biochar as an agricultural amendment or absorbent while minimizing deleterious tar formation during pyrolysis, is crucial. Incorporating these methodologies into biorefineries can facilitate systems where energy, biofuels, and high-value products are used simultaneously, thus ensuring optimal biomass exploitation. Developing advanced catalysts and efficient reactors is critical to enhance productivity, reduce energy consumption, and control the formation of scale or inhibitors [241]. These factors collectively improve overall sustainability. Finally, sustainable management, governed by rigorous criteria for emissions, safety, and waste recycling, is essential to secure regulatory and ecological approval while ensuring responsible use of these technologies.

10.2. Bagasse Energy Optimization: Challenges and Industrial Prospects

Using bagasse as an energy source is a stable sector, yet it has yet to be fully optimized [242]. The technological sophistication of steam boiler and cogeneration systems is demonstrated by the proliferation of industrial projects employing these technologies. However, expanding into pyrolysis, gasification, and bioethanol production poses significant technological and financial challenges. Research should focus on improving yields, reducing costs, and managing co-products effectively. These efforts are instrumental in facilitating a transition to a more sustainable and circular bioeconomy.

Table 2. Sugarcane Bagasse (SCB) Applications with Precise Cost Estimations.

Usage Category	Advantages	Disadvantages	TRL	Estimated Costs	References
Adsorbents: Chemical/Physical Bioadsorbents	Low cost, recyclable, effective for metals/dyes	Requires chemical treatment, limited regeneration	3–4	0.5–2 $/kg (chemicals: 0.3–1 $/kg; processing: 0.2–1 $/kg)	[112,265]
Adsorbents: Activated Carbon	High surface area (536.5 m2/g), thermal stability	High production/energy costs	4–5	1–3 $/kg (H3PO4 activation: 0.5–1.5 $/kg; steam: 0.5–1.5 $/kg)	[66,114]
Adsorbents: Ion Exchange Resins	Good selectivity, regenerable	Manufacturing complexity	3–4	2–5 $/kg (resin synthesis: 1–3 $/kg; equipment: 1–2 $/kg)	[266]
Adsorbents: Nanocatalysts/Zeolites	High efficiency, versatile (catalysis/adsorption)	Synthesis costs, scalability issues	3	5–10 $/kg (nanomaterial synthesis: 3–7 $/kg; energy: 2–3 $/kg)	[109]
Adsorbents: Biochar (Soil/Carbon Sequestration)	Improves soil fertility, sequesters carbon	Variable yield, production costs	3–4	200–500 $/tonne ( $0.22–0.55 $/kg; pyrolysis: 100–300 $/tonne)	[267]
Adsorbents: Biochar (Solid Fuel/Energy)	Renewable energy source, syngas production	Lower energy density, requires pretreatment	3–4	0.3–0.8 $/kg (pyrolysis: 0.2–0.5 $/kg; drying: 0.1–0.3 $/kg)	[268]
Adsorbents: Biochar (Electrochemistry/Filtration)	High conductivity, desalination potential	Needs treatment, variable costs	3–4	1–5 $/kg (functionalization: 0.5–3 $/kg; equipment: 0.5–2 $/kg)	[32]
Composites: Flexible Packaging	Eco-friendly, customizable, lightweight	Limited mechanical/barrier properties	3–4	0.5–1.5 $/kg (pulp processing: 0.3–0.8 $/kg; additives: 0.2–0.7 $/kg)	[126]
Composites: Non-Structural Applications	Biodegradable, low cost	Unsuitable for high mechanical loads	3–4	0.4–1 $/kg (pulp: $0.2–0.5 $/kg; molding: 0.2–0.5 $/kg)	[130]
Composites: Reinforced Thermoplastics	Good strength, thermal stability with additives	Reduced stability without additives	3–4	1–2.5 $/kg (PLA matrix: 0.7–1.5 $/kg; additives: 0.3–1 €/kg)	[165,269]
Composites: Nanocomposites	Improved stability, barrier properties	High costs, dispersion challenges	3	3–8 €/kg (nanoclay/graphene: 2–5 $/kg; processing: 1–3 $/kg)	[143,144]
Ash: Partial Cement Substitute	Reduces emissions, valorizes waste	Reduced strength at high substitution (>30%)	3–4	0.1–0.3 $/kg (grinding: 0.05–0.15 $/kg; transport: 0.05–0.15 $/kg)	[163,165]
Ash: High-Temperature Ceramic Additive	Resists 1600 °C, good insulation	Requires pretreatment, limited compatibility	3–4	0.5–1.5 $/kg (calcination: 0.3–0.8 $/kg; blending: 0.2–0.7 $/kg)	[157]
Ash: Polymer/Glass Composite Filler	Enhances thermal resistance, durability	Dispersion challenges, treatment costs	3	1–3 $/kg (surface treatment: 0.5–1.5 $/kg; mixing: 0.5–1.5 $/kg)	[144,270]
Disposable Plates: Utensils	Eco-friendly, biodegradable, low cost	Lower strength, hygroscopic, needs drying	3–4	0.3–0.8 $/kg (pulp: 0.2–0.5 $/kg; molding/drying: 0.1–0.3 $/kg)	[196]
Paper: Packaging/Hygienic	Renewable, biodegradable, low-cost pulp	Lower strength, shorter fibers	3–4	0.5–1.2 $/kg (soda pulping: 0.3–0.7 $/kg; bleaching: 0.2–0.5 $/kg)	[230,232,271]
Paper: Printing/High-Quality	Affordable, local use	Low tear resistance, poor for thin paper	2–3	0.4–1 $/kg (pulping: 0.3–0.6 $/kg; additives: 0.1–0.4 $/kg)	[214]
Paper: Recycled/Composite	Valorizes recycling, improved mechanics	Fiber degradation, additive needs	3	0.5–1.5 $/kg (recycling: 0.3–0.8 $/kg; additives: 0.2–0.7 $/kg)	[215]
Biochemicals: Succinic Acid	Sustainable, versatile for polymers/pharma	Low conversion (<50%), inhibitor issues	4–5	2–5 $/kg (fermentation: 1–3 $/kg; purification: 1–2 $/kg)	[272,273]
Biochemicals: Furfural	Key for solvents/fuels, 20–50% yield	Toxic byproducts, catalyst stability	4–5	1.5–4 $/kg (hydrolysis: 1–2.5 $/kg; catalysts: 0.5–1.5 $/kg)	[274,275]
Biochemicals: Lignosulfonates	Water-soluble, surfactant/dispersant	Underutilized lignin byproduct	4–5	0.8–2 $/kg (sulfonation: 0.5–1.2 $/kg; purification: 0.3–0.8 $/kg)	[212,276]
Biochemicals: Vanillin	Food/pharma use, green chemistry	Low yield (<30%), high purification cost	4–5	10–20 $/kg (oxidation: 5–10 $/kg; purification: 5–10 $/kg)	[277,278].
Bioethanol	Renewable fuel, easy storage	Inhibitor formation, high enzyme costs	3–4	0.8–2 $/L (enzymes: 0.4–1 $/L; fermentation: 0.4–1 $/L)	[279,280,281]
Enzymes: Cellulases	Robust, well-studied for cellulose breakdown	High costs, byproduct inhibition	4	10–20 $/kg (fermentation: 7–14 $/kg; purification: 3–6 $/kg)	[20,282]
Enzymes: Hemicellulases	Enhances hemicellulose degradation	Limited industrial expression	3–4	5–15 $/kg (fermentation: 3–9 $/kg; purification: 2–6 $/kg)	[283]
Enzymes: Lignases/Esterases	Facilitates lignin breakdown	Low stability in industrial settings	3	8–18 $/kg (fermentation: 5–11 $/kg; purification: 3–7 $/kg)	[284]
Enzymes: Accessory Enzymes	Optimizes degradation process	Production needs improvement	3–4	5–15 $/kg (fermentation: 3–9 $/kg; purification: 2–6 $/kg)	[285,286]
Oligosaccharides: Alkaline + Pichia stipitis	Simple, low-cost, biorefinery-compatible	Moderate conversion (31.8%), purification needs	3	1–3 $/kg (alkaline treatment: 0.5–1.5 $/kg; fermentation: 0.5–1.5 $/kg)	[257]
Oligosaccharides: Alkaline + Thermoascus aurantiacus	Higher efficiency (37.1%)	Long duration, high energy costs	3	1.5–4 $/kg (alkaline treatment: 0.7–2 $/kg; fermentation: 0.8–2 $/kg)	[258]
Oligosaccharides: Steam Auto-Hydrolysis	Enzyme-free, easy integration	Low yield (28%), inhibitory byproducts	3	2–5 $/kg (hydrolysis: 1.5–3.5 $/kg; purification: $0.5–1.5/kg)	[280]
Bioelectricity: Cogeneration	Reliable, reduces fossil fuel use	Pollution if uncontrolled, limited efficiency	4–5	1000–2000 $/kW (initial: 800–1500 $/kW; operational: 200–500 $/kW)	[287,288],
Bioelectricity: Pyrolysis	Produces biochar, bio-oil, gases	Variable yields, byproduct management	3–4	0.5–1.5 $/kg (pyrolysis: 0.3–0.9 $/kg; byproduct handling: 0.2–0.6 $/kg)	[24,62]
Bioelectricity: Gasification	Flexible syngas for engines/turbines	Tar formation, high maintenance	3–4	500–1000 $/kW (equipment: 400–800 $/kW; maintenance: 100–200 $/kW)	[289]
Bioelectricity: Bioethanol Fermentation	Renewable fuel, storable	Inhibitor issues, high costs	3–4	0.8–2 $/L (enzymes: 0.4–1 $/L; fermentation: 0.4–1 $/L)	[290,291]
Bioelectricity: Bio-oil/Bio-huile	Biofuel, agricultural residues	Variable yields, high processing costs	3	0.6–1.8 $/kg (pyrolysis/HTC: 0.4–1.2 $/kg; purification: 0.2–0. 6 $/kg)	[74,101,282]

comprehensively outlines the advantages, disadvantages, Technology Readiness Levels (TRL), and cost estimates for various sugarcane bagasse applications, including adsorbents, composites, ash, biochemicals, bioethanol, enzymes, oligosaccharides, and bioelectricity, highlighting their sustainability potential and technical challenges. Figure 3, generated using the Matplotlib library in Python, visualizes the TRL and estimated costs for these applications, as outlined in Table 2, providing a clear comparison of their developmental stages and economic viability. Figure 3 It offers a comprehensive breakdown of sugarcane bagasse applications, showcasing its multifaceted utilization across industries, such as bioenergy, agriculture, and manufacturing, in 2024. Figure 4 offers a detailed comparison of cost ranges across various sugarcane bagasse usage categories, highlighting economic variations in its industrial applications for 2024.

This graphical summary strengthens the manuscript’s presentation, facilitating better understanding for researchers, stakeholders, and policymakers on SCB’s role in sustainable development. Figure 5 illustrates the diverse applications of sugarcane bagasse and its derived products, encompassing bioenergy, bioplastics, animal feed, paper production, and construction materials.

11. Technical-Economic Analysis

The prevailing wisdom in the field is that bagasse is an economically viable resource that has applications in bioenergy, eco-friendly chemistry, and power generation. Profitability is closely linked to the specific context, initial investments, consumer markets, and legislation. The sector is poised for significant advancements in combustion and cogeneration, as evidenced by the current state of several industrial projects. The diversification of applications (electricity, bioethanol, biochar, gas) is a key factor in enhancing economic optimization, with the caveat that the local context must be taken into account. The evaluation of residues (e.g., straw, leaves, and pith) and by-products (e.g., biochar, gas, and oils) has been demonstrated to enhance overall profitability. The thermochemical conversion (i.e., combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification) is typically limited to 30–40%, which restricts its economic viability. The implementation of advanced technologies, such as gasification and advanced pyrolysis, necessitates the acquisition of costly equipment that is challenging to amortize, particularly in regions characterized by low purchasing power. The recovery and disposal of bio-oil, bio-tar, and bio-char must be conducted in accordance with specific protocols to ensure environmental safety and sustainability. The regulation of emissions, particularly in the context of combustion or pyrolysis, entails the imposition of supplementary expenses associated with environmental control measures. The quality of bagasse is contingent upon factors such as season, moisture content, and composition, which complicates the development of industrial plans [292]. The fluctuating market prices of electricity, fuel, or carbon credits can significantly influence long-term profitability. The comparative analysis highlights the benefits of sugarcane bagasse due to its low ash content and high cellulose, making it a flexible feedstock for bioethanol, bioenergy, and biocomposites [36]. Although rice straw and husks face challenges with higher ash content, they present distinct opportunities for silica-based applications. The balanced characteristics of wheat straw support various biorefinery pathways. Incorporating these residues into sequential biorefinery systems, where bagasse emphasizes bioethanol and energy production, rice residues are aimed at creating adsorbents, and wheat straw is dedicated to biogas, can enhance resource efficiency and align with sustainable development objectives [32]. This comparison emphasizes the supportive functions of agricultural residues in sustainable valorization. Subsequent studies should concentrate on enhancing pretreatment techniques and creating comprehensive biorefinery frameworks to maximize the potential of these resources [37].

11.1. Mixed Technologies for Sustainable Biomass Recovery: Optimization and Management of Co-Products

The development of improved biomass valorization methods involves the integration of diverse technologies, such as pyrolysis, gasification, fermentation, and integrated cogeneration. The objective of this integration is to enhance the performance and diversify the range of products derived from these processes. Furthermore, the effective management of co-products is imperative. For instance, biochar can be utilized as a fertilizer or an absorbent, while tar can be converted into a raw material for the production of catalysts or biochemicals. This approach fosters the development of a circular economy. It is imperative to persist in the enhancement of our technological aptitude in gasification and pyrolysis units, across both modest and substantial scales, to ensure their stability, reliability, and profitability. These attributes are paramount for their successful integration into industrial applications.

The integration of these methodologies within bioprocesses facilitates the establishment of production chains wherein the generation of energy, biofuels, and high-value-added products coexist, thereby promoting diversification of revenue sources and economic stability. Finally, the enhancement of environmental standards, particularly with respect to the reduction in particulates, NO_x, SO_x, and the management of harmful waste, is imperative to ensure the sustainable development of these technologies. A comprehensive life-cycle assessment could facilitate the evaluation of their environmental and economic impact, thereby guiding technological decisions towards more sustainable and efficient options.

11.2. Technical and Economic Assessment of Bagasse Recovery: Industrial Opportunities and Challenges

A technical and economic analysis of bagasse exploitation reveals that it represents a key resource for the production of sustainable energy and chemicals, particularly in developing countries [293,294]. In certain contexts, electrical cogeneration has emerged as a well-established and lucrative enterprise. Conversely, second-generation processes such as pyrolysis, gasification, and fermentation continue to necessitate considerable financial investment and technological advancements to enhance their competitiveness in the market [294]. Large-scale industrialization will require a focus on varied utilization, by-product recovery, and cost control, while taking into account environmental restrictions.

Distinctive Features and Contributions of This Review

With an emphasis on recent developments (2020–2025), this review of the creative uses of sugarcane bagasse (SCB) distinguishes itself from previous research by providing a thorough, integrative analysis of SCB valorization across a variety of industries, including bioenergy, bioplastics, construction, adsorbents, and agriculture. This study synthesizes various pathways, highlighting interdisciplinary approaches and their alignment with circular economy principles, in contrast to previous reviews, such as those by Shabbirahmed et al. [125]. and Ajala et al. [295,296], which mainly focused on specific applications like bioethanol or composites. It offers a comprehensive viewpoint on scaling SCB-based innovations by combining techno-economic studies, environmental impact assessments, and regulatory concerns in a unique way. For example, this analysis examines worldwide trends, including case studies from Brazil, India, and China, which account for around 70% of global SCB output [297,298], whereas earlier research such as Konde et al. [295,296], concentrated on biorefinery potential in certain locations (e.g., India). It also discusses new topics that have not received enough attention in previous reviews, like SCB-derived nanomaterials (such as carbon dots and nanocellulose) and their uses in water treatment and sensing [299,300]. This review provides a new comparison approach by contrasting processing methods (such as gasification, pyrolysis, and enzymatic hydrolysis) with updated Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) and cost estimations. It also fills in holes in earlier research that frequently ignored regulatory frameworks by suggesting practical policy solutions like harmonized standards (like EN 13432) and incentives like Brazil’s RenovaBio. These contributions offer policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers a roadmap for advancing SCB valorization in a sustainable manner.

12. Future Research and Policy Implications

To fully realize sugarcane bagasse (SCB) as a renewable resource within a circular economy, future research and policy must address specific technical, economic, and environmental gaps to enable scalable and sustainable valorization. Below, we outline precise research gaps and targeted directions, alongside policy recommendations, to guide advancements in SCB utilization.

12.1. Technical Research Gaps and Directions

Gap 1: Inefficient Pretreatment Methods: Current pretreatment methods, such as acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, are energy-intensive and produce inhibitors that reduce sugar yields for biofuels and bioproducts like polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) [301,302].

Research direction 1: Develop low-cost, eco-friendly pretreatment techniques, such as biological pretreatment using fungal or bacterial co-cultures, to enhance sugar recovery without generating inhibitors. Optimize enzyme cocktails for SCB’s complex lignocellulosic structure to improve bioconversion efficiency and reduce energy inputs.

Gap 2: Limited Scalability of Nanomaterial Applications: SCB-derived nanomaterials, such as nanocellulose and carbon dots, show promise for sensing and water treatment but lack consistent particle size control and functionalization, hindering industrial applications [303,304].

Research direction 2: Investigate scalable synthesis methods for SCB-derived nanomaterials, focusing on precise control of particle size and surface chemistry through green chemical processes. Conduct pilot-scale studies to validate their performance in real-world applications like pollutant detection or water purification.

Gap 3: Scalability Challenges in Integrated Biorefineries: Integrated biorefineries co-producing biofuels, biochemicals, and bioplastics face issues with high moisture content and tar formation in processes like steam explosion and hydrothermal treatment, limiting scalability [305].

Research direction 3: Design modular biorefinery systems with integrated steam explosion and hydrothermal processes optimized for SCB’s variable composition. Develop tar mitigation strategies, such as catalytic cracking or bio-based filtration, to enhance process stability and scalability [306].

12.2. Economic and Commercialization Gaps and Directions

Gap 1: High Costs and Feedstock Variability: Pretreatment and enzyme costs remain a significant barrier to economic viability, exacerbated by inconsistent SCB quality across regions, making cost parity with fossil-based alternatives challenging [302,303].

Research direction 1: Conduct techno-economic analyses to identify cost-reduction strategies, such as enzyme recycling systems or low-cost pretreatment alternatives. Develop standardized preprocessing protocols to normalize SCB feedstock quality, ensuring consistent yields and reducing operational costs [302,303].

12.3. Environmental and Policy Gaps and Directions

Gap 1: Limited Policy Support and Standardization: The absence of harmonized standards for SCB-derived products, such as bioplastics, and insufficient policy incentives in high-sugarcane regions like Brazil and India hinder commercialization and environmental benefits [307,308].

Research and Policy Direction 1: Establish global standards for SCB-derived bioproducts, aligning with frameworks like EN 13432 for bioplastics, to build market trust and facilitate trade. Advocate for region-specific policies, such as subsidies, tax incentives, and decarbonization credits inspired by programs like RenovaBio, to promote SCB diversion from landfills and support sustainable bioeconomies [308,309]. Foster collaborative ecosystems under initiatives like the EU Green Deal to drive innovation and scalability through public–private partnerships [309].

12.4. Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Bioeconomies

Addressing these gaps requires interdisciplinary efforts combining biotechnology, process engineering, and policy innovation. The research should prioritize pilot-scale validation of integrated biorefinery systems to confirm technical and economic feasibility under real-world conditions. The collaborative research networks should focus on developing resilient microbial strains and scalable nanomaterial production to expand SCB applications. The policy frameworks must incentivize sustainable practices, such as waste-to-resource conversion, and support standardized quality metrics to ensure market acceptance.The recent studies highlight the potential of these strategies to position SCB as a cornerstone of sustainable bioeconomies, reducing reliance on fossil resources and enhancing environmental outcomes [125].

13. Conclusions

In summary, this review highlights SCB’s transformative potential as a versatile, renewable resource for bioenergy, bioplastics, adsorbents, construction materials, and agricultural applications, advancing circular economy principles through waste minimization and reduced environmental impacts. By providing a comprehensive, comparative analysis of processing technologies—unlike prior reviews that focused narrowly on individual pathways—this work underscores recent innovations, such as enhanced gasification efficiencies and nanocellulose composites, while addressing scalability and economic viability. Challenges like pretreatment optimization, regulatory gaps, and commercialization barriers persist, but opportunities for GHG reductions (40–70%) and resource savings position SCB as a cornerstone for sustainable industries.

Looking forward, advancing SCB valorization requires interdisciplinary R&D in AI-optimized processes, hybrid biorefineries, and nanotechnology to enhance yields and reduce costs. Policymakers should prioritize harmonized standards (e.g., via ISO/FAO collaborations) and incentives like carbon credits to facilitate global adoption, particularly in major producers like Brazil and India. Future research should focus on life-cycle assessments integrating climate resilience and social equity, ensuring SCB contributes to equitable, low-carbon transitions by 2030 and beyond. Ultimately, realizing SCB’s full potential will drive green innovation, supporting UN Sustainable Development Goals for a resilient bioeconomy.