A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Dietary Patterns in Healthy Adolescents: Energy Balance, Nutrient Intake, Body Mass, and Serum Marker Alterations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Period and Study Sample
2.2. Applied Tests
2.2.1. Anthropometric Measurements
2.2.2. Basal Metabolic Rate Measurement
2.2.3. Nutritional Analysis
2.2.4. Blood Samples
2.3. Statistical Evaluation
3. Results
3.1. Caloric Value and Vitamin Intake
3.2. The Relationship between Macronutrients and Vitamins
3.3. The Relationship between Energy Needs, Caloric, and Vitamin Intake
3.4. Serum Results, and Changes in Vitamin Intake
4. Discussion
4.1. Caloric, Macronutrient, and Vitamin Intake
4.2. Vitamins and Blood Sample Alterations
4.3. Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Goffe, L.; Rushton, S.; White, M.; Adamson, A.; Adams, J. Relationship between Mean Daily Energy Intake and Frequency of Consumption of Out-of-Home Meals in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2017, 14, 131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lundblad, M.W.; Andersen, L.F.; Jacobsen, B.K.; Carlsen, M.H.; Hjartåker, A.; Grimsgaard, S.; Hopstock, L.A. Energy and Nutrient Intakes in Relation to National Nutrition Recommendations in a Norwegian Population-Based Sample: The Tromsø Study 2015–16. Food Nutr. Res. 2019, 63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stroebele, N.; de Castro, J.M.; Stuht, J.; Catenacci, V.; Wyatt, H.R.; Hill, J.O. A Small-Changes Approach Reduces Energy Intake in Free-Living Humans. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2009, 28, 63–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shan, Z.; Rehm, C.D.; Rogers, G.; Ruan, M.; Wang, D.D.; Hu, F.B.; Mozaffarian, D.; Zhang, F.F.; Bhupathiraju, S.N. Trends in Dietary Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat Intake and Diet Quality Among US Adults, 1999–2016. JAMA 2019, 322, 1178–1187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moreno, L.A.; Rodríguez, G. Dietary Risk Factors for Development of Childhood Obesity. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2007, 10, 336–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, R.; Shi, Y.; Zhou, H.; Yue, A.; Zhang, L.; Sylvia, S.; Medina, A.; Rozelle, S. Micronutrient deficiencies and developmental delays among infants: Evidence from a cross-sectional survey in rural China. BMJ Open 2015, 5, e008400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rivera, J.A.; Hotz, C.; González-Cossío, T.; Neufeld, L.; García-Guerra, A. The Effect of Micronutrient Deficiencies on Child Growth: A Review of Results from Community-Based Supplementation Trials. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 4010S–4020S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martínez Steele, E.; Popkin, B.M.; Swinburn, B.; Monteiro, C.A. The Share of Ultra-Processed Foods and the Overall Nutritional Quality of Diets in the US: Evidence from a Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Study. Popul. Health Metr. 2017, 15, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oz, H.S. Nutrients, Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drenowatz, C.; Shook, R.P.; Hand, G.A.; Hébert, J.R.; Blair, S.N. The Independent Association between Diet Quality and Body Composition. Sci. Rep. 2014, 4, 4928. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Campbell, R.K.; Shaikh, S.; Schulze, K.; Arguello, M.; Ali, H.; Wu, L.; West, K.P.; Christian, P. Micronutrient and Inflammation Status Following One Year of Complementary Food Supplementation in 18-Month-Old Rural Bangladeshi Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellulu, M.S.; Patimah, I.; Khaza’ai, H.; Rahmat, A.; Abed, Y. Obesity and Inflammation: The Linking Mechanism and the Complications. Arch. Med. Sci. AMS 2017, 13, 851–863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Milner, J.J.; Beck, M.A. Micronutrients, Immunology and Inflammation The Impact of Obesity on the Immune Response to Infection. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2012, 71, 298–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- García, O.P.; Ronquillo, D.; Del Carmen Caamaño, M.; Martínez, G.; Camacho, M.; López, V.; Rosado, J.L. Zinc, Iron and Vitamins A, C and E Are Associated with Obesity, Inflammation, Lipid Profile and Insulin Resistance in Mexican School-Aged Children. Nutrients 2013, 5, 5012–5030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Connaughton, R.M.; McMorrow, A.M.; McGillicuddy, F.C.; Lithander, F.E.; Roche, H.M. Impact of Anti-Inflammatory Nutrients on Obesity-Associated Metabolic-Inflammation from Childhood through to Adulthood. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2016, 75, 115–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asbaghi, O.; Sadeghian, M.; Nazarian, B.; Sarreshtedari, M.; Mozaffari-Khosravi, H.; Maleki, V.; Alizadeh, M.; Shokri, A.; Sadeghi, O. The Effect of Vitamin E Supplementation on Selected Inflammatory Biomarkers in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 17234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McMillan, D.C.; Maguire, D.; Talwar, D. Relationship between Nutritional Status and the Systemic Inflammatory Response: Micronutrients. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2019, 78, 56–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- CDC. BMI Calculator for Child and Teen. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/bmi/calculator.html (accessed on 22 May 2021).
- Davidson, L.E.; Wang, J.; Thornton, J.C.; Kaleem, Z.; Silva-Palacios, F.; Pierson, R.N.; Heymsfield, S.B.; Gallagher, D. Predicting Fat Percent by Skinfolds in Racial Groups: Durnin and Womersley Revisited. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2011, 43, 542–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- FoodData Central. Available online: https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/ (accessed on 15 April 2021).
- Benton, D.; Young, H.A. Reducing Calorie Intake May Not Help You Lose Body Weight. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2017, 12, 703–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Menendez, A.; Wanczyk, H.; Walker, J.; Zhou, B.; Santos, M.; Finck, C. Obesity and Adipose Tissue Dysfunction: From Pediatrics to Adults. Genes 2022, 13, 1866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Elizabeth, L.; Machado, P.; Zinöcker, M.; Baker, P.; Lawrence, M. Ultra-Processed Foods and Health Outcomes: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1955. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kiani, A.K.; Dhuli, K.; Donato, K.; Aquilanti, B.; Velluti, V.; Matera, G.; Iaconelli, A.; Connelly, S.T.; Bellinato, F.; Gisondi, P.; et al. Main nutritional deficiencies. J. Prev. Med. Hyg. 2022, 63 (Suppl. S3), E93–E101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huskisson, E.; Maggini, S.; Ruf, M. The Role of Vitamins and Minerals in Energy Metabolism and Well-Being. J. Int. Med. Res. 2007, 35, 277–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Martín-Rodríguez, A.; Ramos-Campo, D.J.; Redondo-Flórez, L.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. The Burden of Carbohydrates in Health and Disease. Nutrients 2022, 14, 3809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Halbesma, N.; Bakker, S.J.L.; Jansen, D.F.; Stolk, R.P.; De Zeeuw, D.; De Jong, P.E.; Gansevoort, R.T. High Protein Intake Associates with Cardiovascular Events but Not with Loss of Renal Function. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009, 20, 1797–1804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hooper, L.; Martin, N.; Jimoh, O.F.; Kirk, C.; Foster, E.; Abdelhamid, A.S. Reduction in Saturated Fat Intake for Cardiovascular Disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2020, 5, CD011737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keller, U. Nutritional Laboratory Markers in Malnutrition. J. Clin. Med. 2019, 8, 775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qi, X.-X.; Shen, P. Associations of Dietary Protein Intake with All-Cause, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2020, 30, 1094–1105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morais, A.A.C.; Silva, M.A.T.; Faintuch, J.; Vidigal, E.J.; Costa, R.A.; Lyrio, D.C.; Trindade, C.R.; Pitanga, K.K. Correlation of Nutritional Status and Food Intake in Hemodialysis Patients. Clinics 2005, 60, 185–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saleem, J.; Zakar, R.; Bukhari, G.M.J.; Fatima, A.; Fischer, F. Developmental delay and its predictors among children under five years of age with uncomplicated severe acute malnutrition: A cross-sectional study in rural Pakistan. BMC Public Health. 2021, 21, 1397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Naghshi, S.; Sadeghi, O.; Willett, W.C.; Esmaillzadeh, A. Dietary intake of total, animal, and plant proteins and risk of all cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: Systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ 2020, 370, m2412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Roohani, N.; Hurrell, R.; Kelishadi, R.; Schulin, R. Zinc and Its Importance for Human Health: An Integrative Review. J. Res. Med. Sci. Off. J. Isfahan Univ. Med. Sci. 2013, 18, 144–157. [Google Scholar]
- Carr, A.; Frei, B. Does Vitamin C Act as a Pro-Oxidant under Physiological Conditions? FASEB J. Off. Publ. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1999, 13, 1007–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Konopacka, M. Rola witaminy C w uszkodzeniach oksydacyjnych DNA [Role of vitamin C in oxidative DNA damage]. Postep. Hig. Med. Dosw. 2004, 58, 343–348. [Google Scholar]
- Pravst, I.; Lavriša, Ž.; Hribar, M.; Hristov, H.; Kvarantan, N.; Seljak, B.K.; Gregorič, M.; Blaznik, U.; Gregorič, N.; Zaletel, K.; et al. Dietary Intake of Folate and Assessment of the Folate Deficiency Prevalence in Slovenia Using Serum Biomarkers. Nutrients 2021, 13, 3860. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, Y.; Cantley, L.C. Toward a Better Understanding of Folate Metabolism in Health and Disease. J. Exp. Med. 2019, 216, 253–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martin-Hadmaș, R.M.; Martin, Ș.A.; Romonți, A.; Mărginean, C.O. The Effect of Dietary Intake and Nutritional Status on Anthropometric Development and Systemic Inflammation: An Observational Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albahrani, A.A.; Greaves, R.F. Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Clinical Indications and Current Challenges for Chromatographic Measurement. Clin. Biochem. Rev. 2016, 37, 27–47. [Google Scholar]
- Puścion-Jakubik, A.; Markiewicz-Żukowska, R.; Naliwajko, S.K.; Gromkowska-Kępka, K.J.; Moskwa, J.; Grabia, M.; Mielech, A.; Bielecka, J.; Karpińska, E.; Mielcarek, K.; et al. Intake of Antioxidant Vitamins and Minerals in Relation to Body Composition, Skin Hydration and Lubrication in Young Women. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 1110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Souza, R.J.; Mente, A.; Maroleanu, A.; Cozma, A.I.; Ha, V.; Kishibe, T.; Uleryk, E.; Budylowski, P.; Schünemann, H.; Beyene, J.; et al. Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ 2015, 351, h3978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mascolo, E.; Vernì, F. Vitamin B6 and Diabetes: Relationship and Molecular Mechanisms. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 3669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shea, M.K.; Booth, S.L.; Massaro, J.M.; Jacques, P.F.; D’Agostino, R.B.; Dawson-Hughes, B.; Ordovas, J.M.; O’Donnell, C.J.; Kathiresan, S.; Keaney, J.F.; et al. Vitamin K and Vitamin D Status: Associations with Inflammatory Markers in the Framingham Offspring Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 167, 313–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aksan, A.; Tugal, D.; Hein, N.; Boettger, K.; Caicedo-Zea, Y.; Diehl, I.; Schumann, C.; Armbruster, F.-P.; Stein, J. Measuring Vitamin D Status in Chronic Inflammatory Disorders: How Does Chronic Inflammation Affect the Reliability of Vitamin D Metabolites in Patients with IBD? J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9, 547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zagotta, I.; Dimova, E.Y.; Debatin, K.M.; Wabitsch, M.; Kietzmann, T.; Fischer-Posovszky, P. Obesity and inflammation: Reduced cytokine expression due to resveratrol in a human in vitro model of inflamed adipose tissue. Front. Pharmacol. 2015, 6, 79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saggini, A.; Anogeianaki, A.; Angelucci, D.; Cianchetti, E.; D’Alessandro, M.; Maccauro, G.; Salini, V.; Caraffa, A.; Teté, S.; Conti, F.; et al. Cholesterol and Vitamins: Revisited Study. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents 2011, 25, 505–515. [Google Scholar]
- Zalaket, J.; Hanna-Wakim, L.; Matta, J. Association between HDL Cholesterol Levels and the Consumption of Vitamin A in Metabolically Healthy Obese Lebanese: A Cross-Sectional Study among Adults in Lebanon. Cholesterol 2018, 2018, e8050512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cartmel, B.; Dziura, J.; Cullen, M.R.; Vegso, S.; Omenn, G.S.; Goodman, G.E.; Redlich, C.A. Changes in cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in the Vanguard population of the Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET). Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 59, 1173–1180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ranasinghe, P.; Wathurapatha, W.; Ishara, M.; Jayawardana, R.; Galappatthy, P.; Katulanda, P.; Constantine, G. Effects of Zinc Supplementation on Serum Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutr. Metab. 2015, 12, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Study Parameter | Median (Min to Max) | CV (%) |
---|---|---|
Age, years old | 13 (10 to 16) | 12.14 |
Body Weight, kg | 47 (25.4 to 75.5) | 22.43 |
Body Height, cm | 158 (129 to 179) | 46.6 |
Fat mass, % | 16.7 (6.6 to 39.3) | 42.16 |
Fat-free mass, % | 36.2 (34.4 to 43.6) | 17.67 |
The sum of skinfolds, mm | 58.75 (11 to 204) | 46.65 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 18.60 (14.10 to 25.30) | 11.71 |
BMI for age Z score | −0.02 (−1.161 to 1.733) | - |
BMI for age percentile | 49.11 (5.36 to 95.84) | 49.51 |
Weight for age percentile, % | 55 (25 to 115) | 55.83 |
Height for age percentile, % | 60 (26.75 to 142) | 58.89 |
Macronutrient | Median (Min to Max) | CV (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
Macronutrients | Carbohydrates (g/day) | 207.6 (100.3 to 393) | 29.37 |
Proteins (g/day) | 79.2 (28.2 to 227.9) | 36.63 | |
Fats (g/day) | 72.53 (16.55 to 164.3) | 39.80 | |
Vitamins | A (µg/day) | 423.6 (83.52 to 2998) | 97.77 |
C (mg/day) | 29.24 (0.6 to 191.9) | 87.26 | |
B1 (mg/day) | 0.935 (0.15 to 1.97) | 45.57 | |
B6 (mg/day) | 0.98 (0.33 to 3.01) | 50.62 | |
B12 (µg/day) | 1.21 (0 to 12.24) | 110.45 | |
K (µg/day) | 17.14 (0 to 489.5) | 181.96 | |
E (mg/day) | 1.175 (0.13 to 5.6) | 83.57 | |
Folic Acid (µg/day) | 7.05 (0 to 386.6) | 212.32 |
Parameter (Median, Min to Max) | Proteins (69.19, 59.71 to 75.4 g/Day) | Fats (72.27, 16.55 to 164.3 g/Day) | Carbohydrates (207.6, 100.3 to 393 g/Day) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | r Value | p-Value | r Value | p-Value | r Value | |
Vitamin A (423.6, 83.52 to 2998 µg/day) | 0.0001 | 0.454 | 0.0009 | 0.321 | 0.0001 | −0.374 |
Vitamin C (29.24, 0.6 to 191.9 mg/day) | 0.1381 | 0.146 | 0.0001 | 0.66 | 0.0677 | 0.179 |
Vitamin B12 (1.21, 0 to 12.24 µg/day) | 0.0001 | 0.597 | 0.0001 | 0.552 | 0.0001 | −0.522 |
Vitamin B1 (0.935, 0.15 to 1.97 mg/day) | 0.0001 | 0.611 | 0.0001 | 0.517 | 0.0001 | −0.535 |
Vitamin B6 (0.98, 0.33 to 3.01 mg/day) | 0.0001 | 0.699 | 0.0001 | 0.401 | 0.0001 | −0.65 |
Vitamin K (17.14, 0 to 489.5 µg/day) | 0.0001 | 0.394 | 0.0001 | 0.493 | 0.0008 | −0.324 |
Vitamin E (1.175, 0.13 to 5.6 mg/day) | 0.0001 | 0.566 | 0.0001 | 0.564 | 0.0001 | −0.454 |
Folic Acid (7.05, 0 to 386.6 µg/day) | 0.1266 | 0.150 | 0.5693 | 0.056 | 0.0042 | −0.278 |
Parameter (Median, Min to Max) | IL-6 (1.41, 0.05 to 5.98 pg/mL) | IL-8 (7.09, 0.72 to 38.9 pg/mL) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | r Value | p-Value | r Value | |
Vitamin A (423.6, 83.52 to 2998 µg/day) | 0.156 | −0.1475 | 0.3286 | −0.1019 |
Vitamin C (29.24, 0.6 to 191.9 mg/day) | 0.0774 | −0.1831 | 0.4269 | 0.08291 |
Vitamin B12 (1.21, 0 to 12.24 µg/day) | 0.1969 | 0.1343 | 0.9921 | 0.001042 |
Vitamin B1 (0.935, 0.15 to 1.97 mg/day) | 0.0101 | −0.2642 | 0.2763 | −0.1135 |
Vitamin B6 (0.98, 0.33 to 3.01 mg/day) | 0.1944 | −0.135 | 0.897 | 0.01353 |
Vitamin K (17.14, 0 to 489.5 µg/day) | 0.0003 | −0.368 | 0.1066 | −0.1675 |
Vitamin E (1.175, 0.13 to 5.6 mg/day) | 0.0248 | −0.2314 | 0.6247 | −0.05111 |
Folic Acid (7.05, 0 to 386.6 µg/day) | 0.0829 | −0.1798 | 0.8382 | 0.02134 |
Parameter (Median, Min to Max) | Cholesterol (144.7, 91.33 to 245.3 mg/dL) | Total Proteins (69.13, 59.71 to 76.41 g/L) | Triglycerides (49.46, 25.67 to 152.4 mg/dL) | Creatinine (0.58, 0.43 to 0.9 mg/dL) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | r Value | p-Value | r Value | p-Value | r Value | p-Value | r Value | |
Vitamin A (423.6, 83.52 to 2998 µg/day) | 0.032 | −0.220 | 0.0781 | −0.182 | 0.9312 | 0.009 | 0.001 | 0.323 |
Vitamin C (29.24, 0.6 to 191.9 mg/day) | 0.769 | −0.030 | 0.1568 | −0.147 | 0.3692 | −0.093 | 0.041 | 0.210 |
Vitamin B12 (1.21, 0 to 12.24 µg/day) | 0.097 | −0.171 | 0.5964 | −0.055 | 0.0345 | 0.218 | 0.007 | 0.272 |
Vitamin B1 (0.935, 0.15 to 1.97 mg/day) | 0.287 | −0.110 | 0.0184 | −0.242 | 0.1885 | 0.136 | 0.0635 | 0.192 |
Vitamin B6 (0.98, 0.33 to 3.01 mg/day) | 0.493 | −0.071 | 0.1208 | −0.161 | 0.8756 | 0.016 | 0.1776 | 0.140 |
Vitamin K (17.14, 0 to 489.5 µg/day) | 0.004 | −0.289 | 0.023 | −0.233 | 0.3686 | 0.093 | 0.091 | 0.175 |
Vitamin E (1.175, 0.13 to 5.6 mg/day) | 0.0301 | −0.223 | 0.001 | −0.334 | 0.6668 | 0.044 | 0.1211 | 0.161 |
Folic Acid (7.05, 0 to 386.6 µg/day) | 0.487 | −0.072 | 0.018 | −0.242 | 0.0412 | −0.211 | 0.6187 | −0.052 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Martin, Ș.A.; Martin-Hadmaș, R.M. A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Dietary Patterns in Healthy Adolescents: Energy Balance, Nutrient Intake, Body Mass, and Serum Marker Alterations. Children 2023, 10, 1714. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10101714
Martin ȘA, Martin-Hadmaș RM. A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Dietary Patterns in Healthy Adolescents: Energy Balance, Nutrient Intake, Body Mass, and Serum Marker Alterations. Children. 2023; 10(10):1714. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10101714
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartin, Ștefan Adrian, and Roxana Maria Martin-Hadmaș. 2023. "A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Dietary Patterns in Healthy Adolescents: Energy Balance, Nutrient Intake, Body Mass, and Serum Marker Alterations" Children 10, no. 10: 1714. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10101714