Vitamin A Deficiency and Its Association with Visceral Adiposity in Women
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Size
2.2. Selection of Study Participants
Assessment of Vitamin A Dietary
2.3. Assessment of Body Variables
- WC is a widely used anthropometric parameter to assess abdominal fat. It was considered high if >88 cm [1].
- WHtR is applied to diagnose abdominal obesity and plays an important role in assessing the risk of cardiovascular events. It was calculated using WC (in cm) divided by Height (in cm), with a cut-off point >0.5 [21].
- HW is a marker for the simultaneous presence of WC and elevated serum triglyceride levels. It is a simple and practical indicator that can be used as a predictor of metabolic disease. It is characterized by the simultaneous presence of increased WC (≥80 cm) and elevated serum triglyceride (TG) levels (≥1.7 mmol/L) [22].
- BAI evaluates the percentage of body fat in adults. It is a method used to estimate body adiposity and is considered an alternative predictor of body fat in the absence of more complex techniques or more expensive methods. According to the formula: (hip circumference (cm) ÷ height (m) 1.5) − 18; the cut-off point is >33 [23].
- VAI can estimate the distribution of fat and the dysfunction of the visceral adipose tissue, resulting from a specific mathematical formula for each gender. According to the formula: (WC (cm) ÷ (36.58 + (BMI * 1.89) * (TG ÷ 0.81) * (1.52 ÷ HDL-c) for women, where TG and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) are expressed in mmol/L, with a cut-off point >1 [24].
- LAP can represent lipotoxicity and may be a marker of abdominal adiposity that correlates with central fat accumulation. This index was calculated: (WC (cm) − 58) × (TG (mmol/L)). The cut-off point used was 37.9 [25].
2.4. Biochemical Measurements of Vitamin A
2.5. Other Biochemical Measurements
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | NW (n = 80) | OW (n = 40) | OI (n = 68) | OII (n = 12) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BMI (kg/m2) | 22.8 ± 1.1 | 27.3 ± 1.2 | 33.1 ± 0.9 | 37.7 ± 0.9 | <0.001 |
Age (years) | 48.2 ± 5.7 | 50.8 ± 5.6 | 50.8 ± 5.1 | 54.3 ± 3.7 | <0.001 |
WC (cm) | 79.4 ± 6.1 | 112.4 ± 10.3 | 120.6 ± 10.2 | 121.1 ± 8.0 | <0.001 |
WHtR | 0.5 ± 0.0 | 0.7 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.0 | <0.001 |
VAI | 3.4 ± 0.7 | 4.8 ± 0.7 | 5.1 ± 0.8 | 5.3 ± 0.4 | <0.001 |
BAI | 22.4 ± 4.3 | 36.6 ± 6.3 | 37.3 ± 5.0 | 37.7 ± 3.6 | <0.001 |
LAP | 33.8 ± 12.2 | 101.2 ± 22.2 | 137.2 ± 35.8 | 165.1 ± 30.4 | <0.001 |
Retinol equivalent (μg/day) | 795.2 ± 49.9 | 781.5 ± 34.5 | 745.8 ± 72.8 | 740.1 ± 32.3 | 0.243 |
BMI Groups | Retinol (μmol/L) | β-Carotene (μg/dL) |
---|---|---|
NW (n = 80) | 1.3 ± 0.2 | 61.2 ± 12.1 |
OW (n = 40) | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 43.5 ± 5.9 |
OI (n = 68) | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 35.9 ± 4.3 |
OII (n = 12) | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 32.0 ± 0.9 |
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 |
BMI Groups | WC (cm) | WHtR | VAI | BAI | LAP |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NW (n = 80) | Retinol LConc 88.5 ± 14.5 Adq 78.6 ± 4.3 | Retinol LConc 0.6 ± 0.1 Adq 0.5 ± 0.0 | Retinol LConc 3.4 ± 0.9 Adq 3.4 ± 0.7 | Retinol LConc 27.4 ± 5.8 Adq 22.0 ± 3.9 | Retinol LConc 55.3 ± 31.0 Adq 32.1 ± 7.3 |
β-carotene LConc 83.3 ± 11.1 Adq 78.7 ± 4.5 | β-carotene LConc 0.5 ± 0.1 Adq 0.5 ± 0.0 | β-carotene LConc 3.4 ± 0.8 Adq 3.4 ± 0.7 | β-carotene LConc 24.6 ± 5.4 Adq 22.0 ± 4.0 | β-carotene LConc 43.4 ± 24.3 Adq 32.1 ± 7.6 | |
p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | |
Retinol LConc 111.2 ± 11.3 Adq 113.2 ± 9.6 | Retinol LConc 0.7 ± 0.1 Adq 0.7 ± 0.0 | Retinol LConc 5.1 ± 0.6 Adq 4.6 ± 0.7 | Retinol LConc 38.9 ± 7.8 Adq 34.8 ± 4.4 | Retinol LConc 104.3 ± 27.4 Adq 98.9 ± 17.6 | |
OW (n = 40) | β-carotene LConc 111.0 ± 12.8 Adq 113.6 ± 7.4 p-value < 0.001 | β-carotene LConc 0.7 ± 0.1 Adq 0.7 ± 0.0 p-value < 0.001 | β-carotene LConc 5.1 ± 0.7 Adq 4.6 ± 0.7 p-value < 0.001 | β-carotene LConc 38.6 ± 8.1 Adq 34.7 ± 3.3 p-value < 0.001 | β-carotene LConc 102.8 ± 29.0 Adq 99.7 ± 14.0 p-value < 0.001 |
OI (n = 68) | Retinol LConc 121.5 ± 11.2 Adq 117.8 ± 4.9 | Retinol LConc 0.7 ± 0.1 Adq 0.7 ± 0.0 | Retinol LConc 5.3 ± 0.8 Adq 4.4 ± 0.4 | Retinol LConc 37.7 ± 5.4 Adq 36.0 ± 3.4 | Retinol LConc 145.8 ± 36.6 Adq 109.4 ± 9.4 |
β-carotene LConc 121.0 ± 10.9 Adq 118.5 ± 3.4 | β-carotene LConc 0.7 ± 0.1 Adq 0.7 ± 0.0 | β-carotene LConc 5.3 ± 0.8 Adq 4.4 ± 0.4 | β-carotene LConc 37.3 ± 5.3 Adq 37.2 ± 2.9 | β-carotene LConc 142.2 ± 36.5 Adq 108.4 ± 7.3 | |
p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | |
OII (n = 12) | Retinol LConc 121.1 ± 8.0 | Retinol LConc 0.7 ± 0.0 | Retinol LConc 5.3 ± 0.4 | Retinol LConc 37.7 ± 3.6 | Retinol 165.1 ± 30.4 |
β-carotene LConc 121.1 ± 8.1 | β-carotene LConc 0.7 ± 0.0 | β-carotene LConc 5.3 ± 0.4 | β-carotene LConc 37.7 ± 3.6 | β-carotene LConc 165.1 ± 30.4 | |
p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 | p-value < 0.001 |
Body Adiposity Parameters | Retinol (μmol/L) | β-Carotene (μg/dL) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
r | p | r | p | |
BMI (Kg/m2) | −0.65 | <0.001 | −0.76 | <0.001 |
WC (cm) | −0.71 | <0.001 | −0.77 | <0.001 |
WHtR | −0.72 | <0.001 | −0.73 | <0.001 |
VAI | −0.73 | <0.001 | −0.68 | <0.001 |
BAI | −0.70 | <0.001 | −0.71 | <0.001 |
LAP | −0.81 | <0.001 | −0.78 | <0.001 |
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Góes, É.; Cordeiro, A.; Bento, C.; Ramalho, A. Vitamin A Deficiency and Its Association with Visceral Adiposity in Women. Biomedicines 2023, 11, 991. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11030991
Góes É, Cordeiro A, Bento C, Ramalho A. Vitamin A Deficiency and Its Association with Visceral Adiposity in Women. Biomedicines. 2023; 11(3):991. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11030991
Chicago/Turabian StyleGóes, Érica, Adryana Cordeiro, Claudia Bento, and Andrea Ramalho. 2023. "Vitamin A Deficiency and Its Association with Visceral Adiposity in Women" Biomedicines 11, no. 3: 991. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11030991