Investigating How a Technology-Enhanced, Systems Thinking-Oriented Engineering Course Influences Students’ Attitudes Towards Design and Technology

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in students’ attitudes towards design and technology in different Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-based learning environments for technical and engineering subjects. Students’ positive attitudes towards the subject can promote deeper knowledge transfer and reduce anxiety about technology. Teachers who have a positive attitude towards the subject tend to promote a high-quality learning process. A total of 44 students participated in this study, with the experimental group and the control group each consisting of 22 students. For this study, we used a quasi-experimental research design with pre- and post-tests and a control variable for ICT engagement. The results suggest that the technology-enhanced systems thinking approach has significant effects on perceptions of the difficulty of technology and engineering differences in students’ attitudes towards design and technology, while perceived autonomy in ICT use can increase motivation and engagement. Feeling competent in ICT use may increase perceived interest, awareness, and aspirations for design and technology and reduce tediousness and gender differences in technology and engineering.

1. Introduction

The continuous development of technologies and the digital age show that modern life requires adequate training of people, and not least the personnel, involved in the development and maintenance of the ever-growing technological interconnected systems. At the same time, the forecasts for Slovenia indicate a high demand and the highest number of vacancies for skilled workers (especially in the fields of science, engineering, business, and administration, as well as teachers and health workers), which is not unique among European countries (Cedefop, 2023). Strengthening the teaching of design, technology, and engineering at an early age appears to be crucial in fostering interest and positive attitudes, which could also subsequently lead to higher levels of engineering thinking, technological and engineering literacy, creativity, and perceived course learning value (Ardies et al., 2013; Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018; Avsec & Sajdera, 2019). Positive attitudes can increase motivation and encourage long-term investment in these fields. However, fostering such attitudes depends not only on the presence and understanding of various (advanced) technologies, which today include various digital tools, but also on teachers’ competence in integrating technological content into practice, as well as on their enthusiasm and pedagogical approaches, whose perceptions have a significant impact on how younger students perceive Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) content (Avsec & Sajdera, 2019; Hedlund, 2021).

Digital technologies and ICT have been introduced into education as a catalyst for improving lesson plans, learning processes, and practices. ICT encompasses the digital tools and systems used to process, transmit, and store information, as well as to support communication. It includes computers, networks, and software, with broad applications, such as the Internet, Internet of Things (IoT), mobile technologies, social media, cloud computing, and specialised software for data analysis, design, and programming (Routray & Mohanty, 2024). In addition, the introduction of contemporary technologies, tools, and methods supported by ICT strengthens the self-confidence and motivation of all students, which is consistent with the findings on the successful integration of digitally supported engineering approaches into the higher education environment (Guzik et al., 2024). Particularly important in this context are students in teacher education programmes, as they will later transfer their knowledge, skills, and attitudes to future generations. The Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition (SAMR) model, developed by Puentedura (n.d.), provides a framework for integrating digital technologies into teaching and learning. It shows how technology can move from simple substitution of traditional tools (e.g., textbooks, worksheets, blackboards) to the redefinition of tasks, enabling learning experiences that were previously inconceivable (Blundell et al., 2022). However, the mere introduction of ICT, as might be expected given the nature of technological and engineering literacy and associated attitudes to design and technology, is no guarantee of positive attitudes to design and technology; the interplay of curriculum structure, teaching quality, student background, etc., also plays an important role (Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018; Tzeng et al., 2025). The systems thinking approach, one of the newer, holistic approaches to problem solving and understanding complexity, which focuses on the interconnections and dynamic interactions between the parts of a system, their behaviour over time, and the perspectives through which they are observed, can further deepen students’ understanding by showing how different elements interact in a broader technological and social context (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2022).

This study was conducted as part of the project “Developing the twenty-first century skills needed for sustainable development and quality education in the era of rapid technology-enhanced changes in the economic, social and natural environment (grant no. J5-4573)”, which focuses on the identification of quality teacher education to achieve the goals of technology-enhanced sustainable development and the development of 21st century skills. The project is divided into several phases: 1. the identification of factors for high-quality teacher education to achieve the goals of technology-enhanced sustainable development and 21st century skills development; 2. the development, implementation, and evaluation of learning models based on multi-criteria decision models for future teachers; and 3. the development, implementation, and evaluation of transfer learning models for student skills development. This study supports the phase of developing and evaluating innovative learning models for future teachers based on multi-criteria decision-making methods and artificial intelligence (AI) solutions (University of Ljubljana, 2022a).

This study also supports the objectives of the programme group “Strategies for Education for Sustainable Development applying Innovative Student-Centred Educational Approaches (ID: P5-0451)”. The programme is focusing on 1. the study of the conceptual foundations of Education for Sustainable Development; 2. the analysis and selection of innovative student-centred educational approaches in Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics (STEAM); 3. the evaluation of their effectiveness through model development; and 4. the dissemination of the results obtained at national and international level (University of Ljubljana, 2024).

With the launch of the “UL for a Sustainable Society—ULTRA” project, aimed at piloting the renovation of higher education for a green and resilient transition, our study served as an evaluation of this pilot modernisation. Within the “ULTRA 5.02-1554 Improving digital skills and competences of (future) educators for quality educational work with younger children” project, new equipment and digital tools were provided, which directly enabled the implementation of our research (University of Ljubljana, 2022b).

Our work makes both scientific and practical contributions as it combines conceptual research in the field of technology-enhanced education for sustainable development with the development of a working learning model. We explore how a technology-enhanced, systems thinking-centred educational model can influence students’ attitudes towards design and technology and how the strategic integration of ICT and holistic pedagogical frameworks can foster greater interest and confidence in engineering-related fields. Building on these aims, this study is guided by research questions that specifically address the impact of the newly developed teaching model as well as the role of students’ ICT engagement in shaping their attitudes towards design and technology. The learning model developed in this study is in line with the objectives of the P5-0451 programme group (University of Ljubljana, 2024) and the ULTRA 5.02-1554 project (University of Ljubljana, 2022b). It represents a practical implementation of the J5-4573 project phase as it tests and validates pedagogical approaches to defining and measuring 21st century skills (University of Ljubljana, 2022a). By improving teachers’ attitudes towards design and technology, our study contributes to the preparation of future educators and indirectly addresses the shortage of STEM professionals in a sustainable, technology-rich environment.

The theoretical background begins with an examination of attitudes towards design and technology and outlines their most important dimensions (Section 2.1). We then introduce systems thinking as an underlying theory of our educational model and discuss the support of digital technologies and tools in teaching and learning approaches (Section 2.2). By incorporating these into the learning design, we emphasise their role as key elements for supporting changes in students’ attitudes toward design and technology. The section ends by stating the aim of this study and formulating the research questions. This is followed by Section 3, which describes the materials and methods, including the study sample, the data collection procedures, the course format, the validation of the instruments, and the analytical approach. In Section 4, we present the empirical findings, followed by a discussion (Section 5), in which we relate these findings to the aim and research questions, discuss the limitations of this study, and make suggestions for future research. The final section, Section 6, summarises the main conclusions.

2. Theoretical Backgrounds

2.1. Attitudes Towards Design and Technology

Following Ardies et al. (2013), attitudes towards design and technology are defined as psychological tendencies that express a certain degree of favour or disfavour towards an entity, in this case, design and technology. They represent a complex multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses cognitive, affective, and behavioural aspects in relation to technological products and processes. This multidimensionality was also confirmed in later studies, such as that by Svenningsson et al. (2022), who explored the interrelations between affective, cognitive, and behavioural components of attitudes towards technology. Attitudes do not presuppose or reflect knowledge in the field, but a correlation between knowledge in the field and attitudes towards it can exist and has already been recognised (Ardies et al., 2013; Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018). Attitudes towards design and technology are largely related to technological and engineering literacy (ITEEA, 2020) and are reflected in the degree of preference for technical and engineering fields and in the willingness to solve practical problems (Ardies et al., 2013). In addition, Gu et al. (2019) included attitudes towards design and technology in the definition of technological and engineering literacy. Their study developed and validated the Technological Literacy Scale for the Chinese Public (TLSCP), which conceptualises technological literacy as a three-dimensional construct comprising Technological Attitudes (TAs), technological knowledge (TK), and Technological Capacity (TC). In this framework, attitudes are not limited to individual preference but are understood as an integral part of technological literacy, closely interlinked with knowledge and capacity. The authors emphasised that positive attitudes towards technology can significantly enhance both the willingness to engage with technological content and the effective application of technological knowledge and skills in practice (Gu et al., 2019).

An important contribution to the conceptualisation was made by research on measurement instruments, such as the PATT instrument (Pupils’ Attitudes Toward Technology), in which important sub-dimensions were identified (Ardies et al., 2013). According to these authors, six dimensions of attitudes towards design and technology are recognised in the areas of 1. technological career orientation; 2. interest in technology; 3. tediousness toward technology; 4. technology for all genders; 5. consequences of technology; and 6. difficulties with technology.

Research shows that the dimensions of interest, perception of difficulties, and career orientation are of great importance in understanding how users evaluate and perform technological activities (Ardies et al., 2013; Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018). This is in line with the findings of Svenningsson et al. (2022), who showed that interest, as an affective component, plays a central role since it is strongly associated both with cognitive understanding and behavioural intentions. Their study also revealed gender differences, with girls’ behavioural intentions being more dependent on cognitive understanding of technology, whereas boys’ attitudes were less conditioned by such interrelations. Studies also show that students with a higher interest in technology are more likely to be more innovative and participate more actively in project work (Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018). Future teachers with a more positive attitude towards design and technology also show a higher motivation to incorporate technological practices into the learning process. On the other hand, those with a higher perceived level of difficulty are less willing to try new technological approaches (Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018). The authors (Avsec & Sajdera, 2019) suggested that the inclusion of digital tools and the use of digital technology for planning, modelling, prototyping, and creating and telling technical stories would maintain interest in the content.

Another study investigated attitudes towards engineering subjects and found that students had a positive attitude towards the subject, particularly in terms of the interesting content, broadening of horizons, and promotion of soft skills, while the complexity and time intensity of the final project were also emphasised (Gero, 2024). In line with the latter, another study by Tzeng et al. (2025) found that prolonged exposure to engineering content and problems can also lead to a decrease in attitude towards technology, mainly due to the possible feeling of anxiety and confusion related to complexity, especially when adequate support is not provided. A high perception of technological difficulties often leads to inhibited creativity and a lower understanding of the importance of learning activities (Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018). Similar findings also apply to teachers in practice: Xu et al. (2022) showed that although high school technology teachers in China predominantly have a positive attitude towards teaching and a high degree of self-confidence in their work, this attitude is strongly dependent on factors such as gender stereotypes, previous education, professional experience, and professional development opportunities. As with students, perceived difficulties or lack of support often lead teachers to shy away from innovation. This confirms that a comprehensive understanding of the different dimensions of attitudes towards technology, among both students and teachers, is key to successfully planning learning environments that foster creativity and technological literacy (Avsec & Sajdera, 2019; Tzeng et al., 2025). This is also strongly supported by the principle of systems thinking, as it enables students to gain a more comprehensive understanding of technological systems and their mutual influences (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2022).

2.2. Systems Thinking Approach and Technology-Enhanced Learning Environment

Systems thinking is increasingly recognised, and by its very nature, it represents a potential for the development of a technological and engineering literacy or an attitude towards design and technology as an important part of literacy. Cabrera and Cabrera (2022) defined it as a kind of holistic view of the system that requires both holistic and reductionist perspectives. Cabrera (2006) developed the Distinctions, Systems, Relationships, and Perspectives (DSRP) rule theory, by which he presented universal patterns and building blocks of cognitive and material complexity, namely, distinctions (Ds)—distinguishing between something that is and something else—what is not; systems (Ss)—identifying parts and wholes; relationships (Rs)—understanding the relationship between action and reaction that emphasises connection and causality; and perspectives (Ps)—viewing the system from different points of view, which enables awareness of different perspectives and contexts (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2022).

The rules are simultaneous and conditional, meaning that concepts/things, etc., can be treated according to all the rules simultaneously and that each of the four rules indicates the existence of the other three (e.g., when we perceive a distinction, systems, relationships, and perspectives also occur simultaneously) (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2022). Due to the application of systems thinking in dealing with complex systems, ICT support, concept maps, flow state maps, diagrams, causal loops, etc., are suggested in the literature for visualisation and presentation in order to reduce the cognitive load (Feriver et al., 2019). However, several factors should be considered when using ICT in education, such as the competence of current staff in using ICT for learning and the digital equipment at educational institutions. In addition, the competencies of learners in relation to ICT and digital use should be taken into account so that we do not mistakenly cause even greater cognitive overload when completing tasks. Stockless et al. (2022) found that despite the expected high ICT skills of digital generations, this is not necessarily the case. They argued for the need for a compulsory subject for future teachers to develop ICT competences, especially in terms of pedagogical use to enhance learning, as there are still doubts about the systematic use of ICT in subjects of study (Stockless et al., 2022). ICT competence is often referred to as ICT literacy, which encompasses several components, such as an individual’s interest, attitude, and ability to use digital technologies and communication tools appropriately. The cognitive motivational aspect of ICT literacy is ICT engagement, which is determined by factors including ICT interest, perceived ICT competence, autonomy in the use of ICT, and ICT as a topic of social interaction. It has been shown that those with a greater interest in ICT are more likely to be able to maintain and develop ICT skills. A gender difference was also found among young people, namely, girls achieve a higher level of actual ICT skills and, on the other hand, often underestimate their ICT skills (Kunina-Habenicht & Goldhammer, 2020).

The integration of ICT and digital tools in the classroom has already been proposed in different models, such as the pedagogical wheel, SAMR, Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK), Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), etc. (Blundell et al., 2022). The SAMR model is a hierarchical model that guides the integration of ICT into teaching practice at different levels according to the change in tasks compared to when ICT is not used. The model consists of two groups, namely, enhancement and transformation, which, in turn, are divided into two levels, namely, enhancement into substitution and augmentation, and, further up the scale, transformation into modification and redefinition (Blundell et al., 2022). Substitution represents the lowest level of the hierarchy and means that non-digital things are replaced by digital things, which are now widespread (writing documents on computers/tablets instead of paper, etc.). Augmentation adds extra functionality to what would otherwise be a direct substitution (e.g., creating a diagram/chart from data using built-in tools, etc.). In terms of transformation, the modification level enables a substantial change in the task (e.g., creating an information video that integrates multiple media sources, etc.), while at the redefinition level, digital technologies and ICT enable the performance of completely new tasks that would not be possible without the use of digital technologies (e.g., virtual classroom, digital collaborative environments, etc.) (Blundell et al., 2022). The integration of digital technologies and tools to improve student engagement, etc., is one of several key objectives of digital transformation in higher education, which, in addition to the aforementioned improved student engagement, include increasing the operational efficiency of the organisation, reducing expenditure, improving the accessibility of research resources, promoting educational innovation, etc. (Alenezi, 2023).

The present study aims to unravel students’ attitude changes based on the adoption of a technology-enhanced systems thinking approach during an engineering course. The second study aims to investigate the influence of ICT competence and autonomy in ICT use on students’ attitudes towards design and technology. Accordingly, the following two research questions (RQs) are proposed for the current study:

RQ1: How do newly developed systems thinking-based and technology-enhanced teaching models influence pre-service preschool teachers’ attitudes toward design and technology, as measured by the adapted “Technology and Me” instrument?

RQ2: To what extent does pre-service preschool teachers’ level of ICT engagement affect any observed changes in their attitudes towards design and technology?

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Participants and Data Collection

For the purpose of this study, a quasi-experimental research design was used. We used convenience sampling to select participants—students from our engineering course—and then assigned them to control and experimental groups to carry out a study. The pre- and post-test design was based on the self-assessment of attitudes towards design and technology, while ICT engagement was assessed as ex-post. Data was collected from undergraduate students enrolled in the Preschool Education study programme at the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, in the academic year 2024/2025. Both the experimental and control groups consisted of 22 students each. In total, 44 students (out of 45 enrolled in the study programme) were engaged in the study, and all of them were female (100%) attending the 2nd year (aged 20–21 years old). The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Commission of the Faculty of Education of the University of Ljubljana (Approval code: 42/2024). The data was collected before and after the intervention. Two self-assessment questionnaires were used, namely, 1. “Technology and Me” to measure attitudes towards design and technology (pre- and post-test) and 2. “ICT engagement”, to measure perceived ICT competences and autonomy in the use of ICT (post-test). Both questionnaires were delivered to the students through a paper-and-pencil approach. To gain a deeper insight into the experiences and use of ICT in kindergarten, we also conducted focus interviews as part of the study (n = 6; 3 students from the control group and 3 from the experimental group). We designed the focus interview to be semi-structured, i.e., we used pre-designed questions, allowing the participants to expand and freely interpret their views. These questions were developed specifically for the focus interviews and were not part of the self-assessment questionnaires mentioned above, so they represent a separate qualitative component of the study. The focus interview was conducted at the end of the experiment, i.e., after all lectures, laboratory work, and other course activities had been completed. It was audio-recorded with the prior consent of the participants.

3.2. Course Format

In general, the goal of the engineering course is to understand and promote the creative transformation and manipulation of various materials to support child development through lecture, laboratory work, and kindergarten activities. Students are encouraged to apply the knowledge gained to their work in kindergarten, as engineering topics can be integrated into different areas of the curriculum (Curriculum for Kindergarten, 2025). In lectures and laboratory exercises, students learn theoretical and practical skills in working with materials, such as paper, plastics, wood, and others. They learn about the properties of the individual materials, processing methods, safe handling, and the targeted integration of digital technologies. As part of the kindergarten activities, students work in groups to design tasks for making and processing materials—a proposal for a suitable product to be made with children in kindergarten. The work includes consulting with a faculty assistant and a kindergarten teacher, designing a lesson, making a prototype, obtaining the necessary materials, and, finally, implementing and evaluating the kindergarten activity (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, 2024).

As a result of conducting the experiment, the students were exposed to different learning approaches during the 2024/2025 academic year. The difference in the digitally supported systems thinking environment was achieved primarily in laboratory practice. Since the laboratory work was conducted in groups, the students were randomly assigned to a less (control group) and a more (experimental group) digitally supported systems thinking learning environment. The control group dealt with products, materials, and technologies in a traditional way, while the experimental group used a systems thinking approach, namely, the DSRP theory (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2022), supported by flowcharts, concept maps, and the iceberg model. In the experimental group, digital tools were used at all levels of the SAMR model (Blundell et al., 2022), from the substitution and augmentation level (e.g., spreadsheets for data processing, …) to the modification and redefinition level (e.g., early programming, 3D modelling, …).

Figure 1 shows a screenshot of the collaborative Miro environment in which the students in the experimental group carried out a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis. Miro is a collaborative online whiteboard platform that enables visual brainstorming, mapping of ideas, and synchronous teamwork. In the experimental group, the students used it to perform a SWOT analysis. In groups, they analysed photos of random products that could be produced with kindergarten children as an example of a technical activity. The SWOT analysis guided them to reflect systematically on the strengths (e.g., educational value, appeal to children), weaknesses (e.g., complexity, fragility), opportunities (e.g., links to the curriculum, interdisciplinary potential), and threats (e.g., safety, maintenance). Each group first analysed the product assigned to them. This was followed by a phase in which the students from all groups worked synchronously on all products in a digital environment and contributed new ideas, views, and perspectives. This approach enabled them to critically evaluate each product and make informed decisions about its inclusion in educational practice.

Figure 2 shows the Cubetto robot sets with which the students in the experimental group first learnt the basic principles of robotics and then designed their own challenges for preschool children. Cubetto is a wooden robotics set for preschoolers that teaches the basics of programming without a screen. Children control it with coloured command blocks on the board, and the robot moves around the playing surface. In this way, they develop logic, spatial perception, and early STEM skills through play. This activity is in line with the findings of Trapero-González et al. (2025) and Hu et al. (2024), which indicate that robotics is the most popular yet effective of all digital technologies to support STEM education in early childhood, as it encourages children to think like engineers, solve problems, and learn in an interdisciplinary way. Moreover, Zhang et al. (2025) found that such activities go beyond both traditional kindergarten activities and unplugged programming activities when it comes to computational thinking, executive functions, etc., as they encourage children to think like engineers, solve problems, and learn in an interdisciplinary way.

Figure 3 shows the 3D modelling of a whistle in the Tinkercad environment, which is suitable for beginners. The students followed the instructions to model in 3D with the Tinkercad tool and learn about its functions through hands-on exercises. The whistle product was chosen because it is suitable for preschoolers and, at the same time, allows them to learn about tools, such as adding/removing different shapes (square, round), creating a hole/solid bodies, rotating, mirroring, grouping, etc.

At the end of the semester, the experimental group also used virtual reality (VR) glasses (Figure 4), where they first familiarised themselves with their use through embedded start-up tasks and then attempted to construct a bridge in selected applications and test its load-bearing capacity in a virtual environment.

For the experimental group, the digital environment included the frequent use of smartphones and laptops in the exercises. Some mobile applications for reinforcement and formative assessment (e.g., Plickers, Mentimeter, Kahoot) and online collaboration platforms (e.g., Miro, Microsoft Teams) were also used in the lectures, but there was no division into control and experimental groups (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, 2024). In addition, the optional lectures were attended on average by around half of the students enrolled in the course, with the proportion of students from the control and experimental groups being roughly equal.

Table 1. Technology-enhanced, systems thinking-oriented engineering course, 2024/2025. The greyed-out parts illustrate the temporal implementation of the course in the form of lectures (Ls), laboratory work, faculty consultations (Cs), and kindergarten activities (Ks).

	Ks	Cs	Ls	Laboratory Work	Control Group	Experimental Group	SAMR Model
					Traditional Approach	Systems Thinking (DSRP Theory)
October				Introductory meeting	Providing basic information, discussing safety when working with tools, equipment, machines, etc., and production of a simple motivational product (hologram pyramid).
				Paper materials	Making paper helicopter, measuring time, calculating average from the data, and drawing graphs by hand on paper.	Making a paper helicopter, measuring time, using computers to calculate the average from the data, drawing a graph (Excel), and saving the file in the cloud (One Drive).	S, A
				Technical drawing	Technical drawing by hand and suitable tools (ruler, compasses, etc.).	Technical drawing using professional software (Solid Edge 2023).	S, A
				Decision making	Decision making on cardboard packaging in groups without any digital tools, applications, etc.	Decision making on cardboard packaging using collaborative digital environment (Miro).	S, A, M
November				Linkage mechanism (paper materials)	Making a toy from cardboard and split pins with a linkage mechanism. Instructions, without simulation of movement.	Making a toy from cardboard and split pins with a linkage mechanism. Simulation of linkage mechanism movement in software (Linkage 3.10.11). Conceptual map.	S, A
				Animation	Making an animation (Zoetrope) from cardboard and paper.	Using a mobile app (Stop motion studio), plasticine, and paper for animation production. Flowchart.	S, A, M
				Crank mechanism (combination of materials)	Making a toy from a combination of materials and mechanisms.	Making a toy from a combination of materials and mechanisms. DSRP diagram. Flowchart.
				Packaging waste (plastic bottle)	Production of a movable toy from packaging waste.	Production of a movable toy from packaging waste. Flowchart, conceptual map.
December				Early programming	Making a game-like gadget for early programming out of paper and cardboard.	Using robot sets (Cubetto) to design early programming activities.	S, A, M, R
				Modelling	Modelling a whistle from polymer clay (FIMO) and baking.	Fabricating a 3D model of a whistle using software to 3D model (Tinkercad web app) and 3D print (Bambu Studio 1.10.0).	S, A, M, R
				Woodworking	Making a puzzle—Tangram from wood in the workshop.	Making a puzzle—Tangram from wood in the workshop. Iceberg model.
				Construction	Using a construction set (Lego technic) to construct a bridge.	Using virtual reality (Meta Quest 2) to construct a bridge.	S, A, M, R
January				Final product	Production and manufacturing of the product according to a drawn photo of the product suitable for kindergarten.
				Work report on a final product	Writing a work report on an already manufactured product based on a photo.

Note: The greyed-out parts illustrate the temporal implementation of the course.

shows the module structure of the control and experimental groups for the engineering course in 2024/2025. The periods highlighted in grey indicate the time spans in which the various course activities took place. Lectures (15 periods) and laboratory exercises (30 periods) were scheduled for 90 min each, while other forms of work (16 periods) also included the preparation and implementation of kindergarten activities, as mentioned above. In Table 1, only the approx. 45 min kindergarten performance meeting with the faculty assistant is listed, while the remaining activities were conducted by the students themselves, depending on their schedule, organisational skills, ability to work in teams, etc. The performance in the kindergarten lasted about 90 min, including reflection (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, 2024).

3.3. Instruments and Validation Measures

The students’ attitudes towards design and technology were assessed based on measures developed by Ardies et al. (2013) with a 5-point Likert scale (from 0—never to 4—always). The scales were adapted and upgraded by the authors of the present study, following guidance from Avsec and Jagiełło-Kowalczyk (2018). Thus, the final questionnaire consisted of twenty-seven items, which form six constructs based on dimensions of attitudes (Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018):

• TCA: Technological career aspirations (4 items).
• IT: Interest in technology (6 items).
• BT: Boredom with technology (4 items).
• BGD: Beliefs about gender differences (5 items).
• PCT: Perceived consequences of technology (4 items).
• PDT: Perceived difficulty of technology (4 items).

All constructs of attitudes towards design and technology were already validated in a previous study (Avsec & Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2018), which suggested that all constructs of attitudes demonstrate evidence of convergent and discriminant validity.

ICT engagement was measured using an adapted questionnaire developed by Kunina-Habenicht and Goldhammer (2020), where only two scales were used:

• PCOMP: Perceived ICT competence (5 items).
• PA: Perceived autonomy in ICT use (5 items).

For the assessment, a 5-point Likert scale was used (from 1—strongly disagree to 5—strongly agree). All variables of ICT engagement were also validated in a previous study (Kunina-Habenicht & Goldhammer, 2020), and all variables demonstrated evidence of high discriminant and convergent validity.

Both questionnaires in the present study proved to be highly reliable, with Cronbach’s alpha values for the constructs being greater than 0.80 (see Table 1 and

Table 2. Students’ average pre- and post-test scores on attitudes towards design and technology constructs, expressed as the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD), with corresponding Cronbach’s α values.

Scales of Attitudes	Experimental Group				Control Group				Reliability Measure
	Pre-Test		Post-Test		Pre-Test		Post-Test		Pre-Test	Post-Test
	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	Cronbach’s α	Cronbach’s α
TCA	1.37	0.54	1.55	0.91	1.41	0.79	1.72	0.84	0.83	0.88
IT	1.98	0.57	2.15	0.75	2.04	0.60	2.50	0.79	0.80	0.80
BT	1.01	0.78	1.08	0.81	1.19	0.80	1.11	0.75	0.90	0.85
BGD	1.37	0.81	1.38	0.75	1.32	0.91	1.36	0.84	0.88	0.83
PCT	2.92	0.55	3.14	0.68	2.89	0.62	3.35	0.56	0.81	0.90
PDT	2.03	0.65	1.88	0.57	2.23	0.65	2.52	0.59	0.80	0.82

). In general, an α value above 0.7 is considered to indicate acceptable internal consistency, while values above 0.8 and 0.9 indicate high reliability (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). High reliability over 0.90 was also reported in many countries where a survey on ICT engagement was conducted, as reported by Ma and Qin (2021).

3.4. Data Analysis

The data was analysed using IBM SPSS software (v.25). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were used to support the reliability of the constructs. In addition, descriptive statistics were used to summarise and describe the main characteristics of a data set, such as the mean and standard deviation of the dependent variable, while analysis of variance was used to find and confirm significant differences in attitude changes during the experiment, also controlled with student ICT engagement as a covariate. An effect size partial eta squared (η²) was used to measure the strength of the relationship between variables. The qualitative method used a focus interview.

4. Results

The students’ attitudes towards design and technology results were obtained using a self-assessment questionnaire with six subscales (see Table 2). The students in both groups indicated above-average attitudes on the PCT and PDT subscales at the pre-test (a mid-point of 2) and around the average on the IT subscale. The students’ perceptions of BT were unexpectedly low, suggesting that they do not perceive design and technology activities as boring, especially from the perspective of the exclusively female students. In addition, the students rated their capacity in design and technology activities as at least comparable to that of men. TCA was reported as below average, which was to be expected as the students had already chosen their careers. IT was reported as average on the pre-test and slightly higher on the post-test for both groups. At the post-test, students in both groups reported higher achievement—they were more positive about design and technology. When comparing the effects of the intervention, we contrasted the post-test means, adjusted for the pre-test scores for both groups. Analysis of covariance using Bonferroni adjustment revealed a significant difference between groups only on the PDT subscale, where the experimental group reported significantly lower difficulty than the control group (F (1, 43) = 12,707; p = 0.001 < 0.05). A value of partial η² = 0.26 indicated a strong effect size (Cohen et al., 2013).

The students’ ICT engagement results were obtained using a self-assessment questionnaire with two subscales, as listed in

Table 3. Students’ average scores on ICT engagement constructs, expressed as the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD), with corresponding Cronbach’s α values.

Scales of Engagement	Experimental Group		Control Group		Reliability Measure
	M	SD	M	SD	Cronbach α
PCOMP	3.23	0.86	3.60	0.67	0.89
PA	3.37	0.83	3.50	0.72	0.86

. The students in both groups reported above-average ICT engagement on all subscales, with a scale mid-point of 3.

The 22 participants who received the technology-enhanced systems thinking intervention (M = 3.32, SD = 0.82) compared to the 22 participants in the control group (M = 3.60, SD = 0.67) did not demonstrate significantly lower scores in PCOMP, t (42) = 1.87; p = 0.138 > 0.05. The same result was obtained for PA, where the students in the experimental group (M = 3.37, SD = 0.83) did not demonstrate significantly lower scores in PA than their counterparts in the control group (M = 3.50, SD = 0.72), t (42) = 5.27; p = 0.258 > 0.05. For both PCOMP and PA, the control group’s mean was slightly higher than the experimental group’s mean.

The Shapiro–Wilk test of normality was used for both attitudes towards design and technology and the ICT engagement data set. The test revealed that a data set across different study groups comes from the normal distribution (p > 0.05). Since the normality assumption was met, parametric tests were performed to reveal the differences between the groups involved in the study.

To answer the second research question, which was whether student ICT engagement may affect the mean change in the outcome from the pre-test to the post-test, which differed in the two groups, we conducted a repeated measures analysis of variance in which two covariates were used, namely, PCOMP and PA. Firstly, we tested within-subject contrasts for each attitude subscale, and we found significant differences only at two subscales: (1) IT, where the change in attitude from pre-test to post-test was pretty much consistent for students with a certain level of perceived autonomy with ICT use (p = 0.011 < 0.05), and (2) PDT, where the change in attitude from pre-test to post-test was pretty much consistent for students depending on the two experimental settings (p = 0.033 < 0.05).

When analysing between-subject effects, first, we conducted Levene’s test, which confirmed that corresponding measures at time one and time two met the assumption of homogeneity of variance. Next, the transformed variable was the average value of attitude at time 1 (pre-test) and time 2 (post-test). As shown in

Table 4. Tests of between-subject effects in attitude change across the groups of students. The covariates PCOMP and PA were used. Statistical significance p-values and effect sizes with partial η² are shown.

Scales of Attitudes	Systems Thinking		PCOMP		PA
	p-Value	Partial η2	p-Value	Partial η2	p-Value	Partial η2
TCA	0.980	0.00	0.945	0.00	0.023	0.12
IT	0.840	0.01	0.191	0.04	0.002	0.22
BT	0.218	0.04	0.667	0.01	0.017	0.13
BGD	0.945	0.00	0.129	0.06	0.006	0.18
PCT	0.953	0.00	0.839	0.01	0.012	0.15
PDT	0.003	0.22	0.009	0.16	0.187	0.04

, statistically significant differences in average attitude change were found only at the PDT scale of attitudes. After the experiment, the students in the experimental group perceived the technology and engineering subject matter as being less difficult than their counterparts in the control group.

Table 4 also shows that the PCOMP and PA covariates explained a significant (p < 0.05) amount of variance in the dependent measure (PDT, TCA, IT, BT, BGD, PCT).

The expectations of pre-service preschool teachers in the Technical Education course relate to the production of products that are transferable and useful in the kindergarten environment. Although possible, these expectations were not lost through the more sophisticated use of ICT and the inclusion of systems thinking in the technology-enhanced model, and it was not more difficult for the students to recognise the transfer to kindergarten practice. The implementation of the model contributed to comparable attitudes between the students in the experimental and control groups, as their perceptions did not differ. The students maintained a similar understanding and attitude towards design and technology, suggesting that the introduction of a systems-based, technology-enhanced approach does not undermine the existing concept of technical education; rather, it demonstrates the potential for improvement and wider application in educational practice.

The results of the focus interview also showed that the feeling of mastery of digital skills is often a threshold for the use of ICT content in kindergartens. Regardless of the assigned group (experimental or control group), the students were relatively unanimous: they agreed that they rarely came into contact with, learned about, or used ICT content in the subjects of the programme during their studies. They stated that they needed to acquire the basic digital skills necessary for their work, e.g., in the areas of administration (record keeping, managing spreadsheets, etc.) and data protection (as one student in the experimental group emphasised), particularly when it comes to children, before feeling prepared to integrate technology into their future roles working with children. Although some in the experimental group noted a degree of autonomy in themselves (e.g., motivation to use or ideas for alternative activities with robotic kits), they all expressed doubts about their own competence and ICT literacy. Based on the students’ experiences with children’s lack of fine motor skills, they agreed that these deficits are obvious: “… we have seen in practice that children in a group of 4–5-year-olds cannot yet cut out a circle”. They were also of the opinion that children are exposed to screens largely outside of kindergarten. Therefore, they considered the area of technical education as suitable for the development of fine motor skills, arts, and crafts and less for the introduction of sophisticated ICT-based technical and technological content. They preferred primarily hands-on activities and believed that preschool is a place where children can learn about their own bodies and how to use them. One student from the experimental group also emphasised the need for spatial organisation when introducing ICT in kindergarten (“It would be better to cover these topics in elementary school because there are classrooms with computers, and every child has access to a computer”). However, the students pointed out instances where ICT would be welcome (e.g., when searching for pictures or recording content that is difficult to access: “I would show them something from the internet, something we can’t see otherwise, like a picture of a blue whale”), but only to an extent that did not encourage children to use the screens independently.

5. Discussion

The following sections discuss the findings of our study, which focus on the influences of the technology-enhanced, systems thinking-oriented engineering course on students’ attitudes towards design and technology in line with the research questions posed. The limitations and future work are also presented.

5.1. The Influences of the Technology-Enhanced, Systems Thinking-Oriented Engineering Course on Students’ Attitudes Towards Design and Technology

The significant reduction in perceived difficulty (PDT) in the students who participated in the technology-enhanced systems thinking intervention suggests that structuring learning through interconnected steps can clarify complex engineering tasks. By visualising the relationships between components, the participants were likely to see clearer pathways to success, which boosted their confidence and reduced anxiety.

Regarding ICT engagement, the students from both groups reported above-average scores on the subscales. Compared to a large sample of 15-year-old students who reported mean scores on the same scales, 20-year-old students reported 10–20% higher mean scores (Kunina-Habenicht & Goldhammer, 2020). As Ma and Qin (2021) found, the mean score of ICT engagement did not differ significantly between adolescent populations in different countries, which was also confirmed by Kunina-Habenicht and Goldhammer (2020). The results showed that the control group’s mean was slightly higher than the experimental group’s in both subscales of ICT engagement. It could be that the students in the experimental group, due to their increased exposure to technology-enhanced systems thinking, became more self-aware of their own limitations—thus reporting lower perceived competence or autonomy even while objectively improving. Next, due to contextual factors and involvement in ICT-enhanced activities in other study subjects or at home, perhaps the students in the control group were already more comfortable with ICT, or their environments supported autonomy just as effectively. Using a new systems thinking model with integrated technology can be more demanding. Students in the experimental group may have felt that their choices were constrained by the new structure (e.g., specific tasks, steps, or modules that must be followed), reducing their sense of freedom in how they use ICT. On the other hand, students in the control group experienced less cognitive load. In the experimental group, there seemed to be fewer mastery moments. The students may have been engaged in deeper or more demanding tasks that do not yield immediate, easy successes (Henrie et al., 2015). When students do not see clear evidence of mastering a new tool or technology, they can end up feeling less competent—even if they are building more sophisticated skills over time (Tzeng et al., 2025). Nevertheless, future research could explore larger samples, different durations of experiments or modules involved, or alternative outcome measures to determine if a meaningful effect may emerge under different circumstances.

The impact of the newly developed systems thinking-based technology-enhanced educational model on students’ attitudes towards design and technology showed significant differences on two subscales: students’ interest in technology (IT), where the change in attitude from the pre-test to the post-test was consistent among the students with a certain level of perceived autonomy (PA) in using ICT, and perceived difficulty of technology (PDT), where the change in attitude from the pre-test to the post-test was quite consistent among the students depending on experimental settings.

It seems that higher PA and an autonomy-supportive learning environment can promote a more stable and positive development of students’ interest in technology and intrinsic motivation. Among the factors of attitude towards design and technology, interest in technology has been identified as the strongest positive predictor for engineering thinking (Avsec & Sajdera, 2019). On the other hand, PDT in different experimental contexts emphasises the importance of instructional design in reducing technology anxiety. This is in line with broader educational research (Baptista et al., 2025; Guo & Fryer, 2025; Rihtaršič & Kocijančič, 2012), which highlights that learner-centred, interactive, and contextualised pedagogical approaches, such as inquiry-based tasks, practical/experimental learning, simulations or digital workshops, etc., not only enhance knowledge acquisition but also promote situational interest (as they target relevant situational contexts—novelty, social interaction, hands-on activities, usefulness, relevance, meaningfulness, cognitive activation, complexity, social interaction, choice, …), which can develop into a lasting individual interest. Interest-driven engagement is key to fostering students’ critical thinking, creative problem solving, and long-term commitment to socially relevant issues, including sustainability and technological innovation (Baptista et al., 2025). As Avsec and Sajdera (2019) further demonstrated, higher interest in technology increased engagement and enhanced creative potential, while negative perceptions of technology could be mitigated through a stronger sense of competence in integrating technological content into pedagogical practice.

After the intervention, the students in the experimental group reported a lower perceived difficulty of technology and engineering topics than those in the control group. However, the fact that the group with lower perceived difficulty was guided through a systems thinking approach adds an important layer to this interpretation. Systems thinking often involves breaking down complex, interrelated components into more understandable parts and showing how they connect. When students are guided in seeing the “big picture”, they (1) feel more competent because the complexity is made more transparent, the individual steps are clearer, and they can see how their actions lead to the overall outcome (Radiamoda et al., 2024), and (2) can integrate existing ICT skills in a meaningful context, reinforcing their sense of mastery (Ma & Qin, 2021). In effect, systems thinking can bolster perceived ICT competence by providing structured learning experiences that reduce confusion and empower students to successfully apply the skills they have. This, in turn, is likely what led to lower perceived difficulty among the participants in that group.

While perceived autonomy in ICT use can boost motivation and engagement, feeling competent in ICT use is usually the more powerful predictor, especially when it comes to (1) increasing perceived interest, awareness, and aspirations for design and technology and (2) reducing tediousness and gender differences in technology and engineering. This aligns with well-established motivational models—such as Expectancy-Value Theory and Self-Determination Theory—which emphasise that a strong sense of competence is crucial for lowering anxiety and increasing confidence in challenging domains like technology and engineering (Henrie et al., 2015; Ma & Qin, 2021; Tzeng et al., 2025).

In the survey, the students agreed that they were not proficient in using digital tools for their work, especially when it comes to administration and urgent work that they have in addition to activities with children. This is in line with other research (Vidal-Esteve & Martín-Gómez, 2023), where authors state that teachers express a need for additional training and support for the effective integration of technology into their work. The latter is also supported by an earlier study (Kurent & Avsec, 2023) in which, despite a relatively high self-assessment of pre-service preschool teachers’ ICT self-concepts, skills in problem-solving, content creation, and the safe use of ICT were rated lower than skills in communication, process, and storage. In addition, the doubts expressed about their own competence and ICT literacy for more demanding tasks are consistent with the study by Stockless et al. (2022), in which future teachers rated themselves as moderately competent in the use of ICT. From an activity design perspective, the students seemed to emphasise the importance of matching task demands to the child’s developmental level and following the principle of the developmental process approach (Curriculum for Kindergarten, 2025), as many children they have seen in kindergarten have not yet reached the expected fine motor skills, so they would focus more on this. This is in line with the study by Vidal-Esteve and Martín-Gómez (2023), where they specifically emphasised the importance of practical (hands-on) resources and limited time and equipment to work with digital didactic materials. The pre-service preschool teachers in our survey also emphasised the need to provide equipment when it comes to promoting the use of digital technologies and tools from early childhood onwards, which is currently not regulated. In any case, the students saw opportunities to use digital technologies in their work to show unattainable things, on the one hand, and to organise administration and management, which is part of their job, on the other. In light of the motivational theories mentioned above, training in this area could strengthen the sense of competence—not only in terms of technology but also in terms of professional interaction with children, photos, and documentation. Thoughtful pedagogical training is crucial—not only for strengthening technical competence but also for building professional self-confidence in the use of digital tools for interaction with children, documentation, and administration (Vidal-Esteve & Martín-Gómez, 2023).

This study showed that the introduction of a systems thinking-based, technology-enhanced model can meaningfully change students’ attitudes towards design and technology by stimulating greater interest and reducing the perception of difficulty in engaging with technological content. At the same time, the findings emphasise the importance of ICT-related competence and autonomy: students who felt more confident in their digital skills perceived technology as less difficult and developed more interest in engaging with technology. Taken together, these findings represent the novel contribution of our work, as they show that such an approach can be effective even with a population not normally associated with a strong technological orientation, such as pre-service preschool teachers. Furthermore, this study aligns with recent findings from other STEM subjects (Vuorio et al., 2025; York et al., 2019), where systems thinking is increasingly being applied to help learners understand complexity and interdependence. Building on these results, the novelty of this study can be described in three ways. This study showed that the introduction of a technologically enhanced model based on a systems thinking approach is new in the field of preschool education. Firstly, it represents an original contribution at a conceptual level by introducing a systems thinking approach as a pedagogical framework. Second, this study develops a model based on systems thinking and adapts it to the specific characteristics of preschool education, a field in which this approach has not yet been thoroughly explored. Third, this study emphasises the transformative potential of systems thinking for practice. By including materials, design activities, and technology, as well as challenges related to ICT, the model provides a way to rethink and negotiate the contested role of ICT in preschool, where the views of teachers, parents, policy makers, and curriculum developers often diverge (Nikolopoulou & Gialamas, 2015; Curriculum for Kindergarten, 2025).

Taken together, these findings represent the new contribution of our work. They show that the systems thinking approach not only supports future educators in developing positive attitudes towards technology but also provides wider guidance for reshaping pedagogical practice in a rapidly evolving, technology-dependent world.

5.2. Limitations and Future Work

Despite the systematic design, this study has some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. Firstly, the sample consisted of only 44 students from the Faculty of Education at the University of Ljubljana, which limits the generalisability of the findings. A larger and more heterogeneous group, e.g., with students from the same degree program at other Slovenian universities, could have revealed additional patterns. The sample was not analysed by gender, as, due to the nature of the work, most preschool teachers are women. The present study was conducted with a specific group: pre-service preschool teachers, who are usually female-dominated and generally less technically orientated, with little experience of technical and engineering content. This context shaped the way in which the teaching model was experienced and evaluated. While the findings cannot be directly generalised to other groups of students, they do offer valuable insights into the way in which a technology-enhanced, systems thinking-based approach can support learners with low initial confidence in technology. It is likely that students with other profiles, e.g., those on more technically orientated degree programmes (future teachers of technology and engineering subjects, engineers, etc.), could also benefit from such an approach, possibly even more so if they have a higher level of initial ICT competence. Future research should therefore explore the applicability of the model in larger and more diverse cohorts, including male students, mixed-gender groups, and students in different disciplinary and cultural contexts. It is also important to consider the potential transferability of our findings. Systems thinking has been successfully applied in other STEM disciplines (Vuorio et al., 2025; York et al., 2019), demonstrating its versatility as a pedagogical approach to managing complexity in diverse contexts. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the positive effects of such a model extend beyond our specific context and could also benefit students with higher ICT competencies. Comparative studies in different STEM subjects could provide further evidence of the applicability of the model and clarify how it supports learners with varying levels of technical expertise and confidence.

Secondly, the data is based on self-assessment questionnaires, which may contain biases and do not always reflect the actual level, as this may also vary depending on the individual’s interpretation. The reliance on self-reported measures reduces internal validity, although the inclusion of qualitative interview data partially mitigates this limitation by providing complementary insights. In future studies, it would be useful to supplement self-assessments with objective measurements—for example, by observing students’ work in solving certain digital tasks or by analysing their products (e-portfolio, etc.).

The third limitation is the relatively short duration of the experiment (one semester unit), which makes it difficult to assess the long-term impact of the introduction of systems thinking and technological support. Moreover, the quasi-experimental design did not allow full control over external factors that may have influenced the results. For instance, the students simultaneously attended several other courses and performed ICT-related activities in their home environment, which further shaped their experiences and self-image when working with digital tools. For the future, it would be advisable to conduct a more controlled experiment in the form of a one-week workshop on systems thinking, in which several environmental influences can be kept under control.

Fourth, in addition to measuring attitudes towards design and technology, other psychological constructs could be measured to obtain a more comprehensive picture, such as self-regulation and self-direction of learning, self-efficacy, and sustained intrinsic motivation. This would allow for a better understanding of which areas most often hinder the introduction of ICT in preschool education, and, on the other hand, technological and engineering knowledge and skills.

6. Conclusions

This study highlights differences in attitudes toward design and technology among pre-service preschool teachers in an engineering course using a quasi-experimental design with two groups in a traditional and technology-enhanced and systems thinking-oriented setting. The experiment, in general, did not reveal many differences between the groups, but some characteristics were identified that are important for further research. With regard to RQ1, this study showed that the technology-enhanced, systems thinking-based model positively influenced students’ attitudes by increasing their interest in technology and reducing the perceived difficulty of technological content, especially compared to the control group. In relation to RQ2, the results confirmed that the students’ perceived autonomy and competence in ICT use played a crucial role in shaping the attitude changes, as higher ICT engagement was associated with greater self-confidence, lower anxiety, and sustained interest in technology. The differences in perceived ICT competencies in favour of the control group could be explained by the fact that the group (at least in the context of our engineering course) was exposed to less demanding digital technology (projecting presentations, writing reports, using an online classroom). On the other hand, the students in the course were relatively cognitively challenged, both by the content and the forms of work, and not least by the use of advanced digital technologies. In terms of ICT competencies, the group rated the latter slightly lower, which nevertheless indicates a positive result in this direction, as the use of ICT was adequately taken into account at appropriate points so that it did not have a negative impact. For future research, we suggest improving digital support, clearly positioning ICT and approaches (such as systems thinking) while adopting a slower approach supported by more collaboration and feedback to allow knowledge to take root. Such efforts would help to transform the lower initial motivation and reluctance due to low confidence in ICT into actual practice with greater confidence and better learning outcomes, including the optimal use of technology at the most sensitive stages of preschool education. Moreover, our findings suggest that this learning model can be successfully used in other STEM subjects and offers a way to prepare future educators and learners to manage complexity in a rapidly evolving technological world. Ensuring that students have a structure that facilitates understanding and a sense of mastery of the area in question is critical to success and reducing anxiety about technology.