‘I Did Not Choose Teaching Because…’: Examining the Underrepresentation of Ethnic Minority Teacher Candidates in Australia

Abstract

Ethnic minority teacher candidates are disproportionately underrepresented in Australia’s teacher education programs. This study examined the perceptions of ethnic minorities who considered but did not choose teaching to understand the inhibitors and what could have motivated them to pursue teaching. Using Margaret Archer’s theory of reflexive decision-making and data from 152 survey respondents and 48 interview participants, we found that participants’ teaching career decision is influenced by personal conditions (personal beliefs), structural conditions (racism and discrimination, financial consideration, and career pathway), and cultural conditions (status and image of teaching and social influence). Strategies to attract ethnic minorities into teaching are discussed.

1. Introduction

Increased migration has brought greater social, cultural, and linguistic diversity to Australian classrooms. Approximately one-quarter of students in Australian classrooms speak a language other than English at home (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership [AITSL], 2021). However, in contrast to the diverse student population, the teaching workforce remains overwhelmingly white and monolingual in English. The Australian Teacher Workforce Data [ATWD] (2021) indicates that 17% of teachers were born overseas, compared with 33.6% of the wider working-age population. Teachers from ethnic minority backgrounds account for only 6% of the teaching workforce in Australian schools (Australian Teacher Workforce Data [ATWD], 2022). A similar situation is reflected in the homogeneity of the initial teacher education (ITE) program, with only 2% of its students from non-English speaking backgrounds in 2016 (Australian Government, 2022). This demographic characteristic then flows into the teaching workforce.

Research has predominantly examined why people choose to become teachers (e.g., Fray & Gore, 2018; See et al., 2022). The participants in these studies are practising teachers or prospective teachers. Moreover, most studies treated the participant group as a whole and presented findings that represent the views of the general population; studies that capture the views of specific groups, such as those from ethnic minority backgrounds, are few. Given that prospective teachers from ethnic minority backgrounds are disproportionally underrepresented in ITE, it is crucial that we understand why. Critical findings are lost when their views are not included. Understanding the perspective of students who considered but did not choose to study ITE courses is essential, as it informs us of their (mis)conceptions of the profession, the barriers to becoming teachers, and the factors that shaped their decisions. The insights derived from this group could inform policy and strategies aimed at diversifying the teaching workforce. The following research questions guide this study:

• What is the perception of the teaching profession among people from ethnic minority backgrounds?
• What inhibits people from ethnic minority backgrounds from considering teaching as a career?
• What would have motivated people from ethnic minority backgrounds to consider teaching?

2. Literature Review

There are various reasons influencing individuals’ career choices and courses of study at university. For ethnic minority students who considered but ultimately decided against pursuing a teacher education degree, their decision may have been influenced by factors unique to the teaching profession. This section outlines the research on factors that may influence the teaching career decisions of ethnic minorities.

2.1. Lack of Role Models

The impact of role models on the career choices of minority students is widely acknowledged. Minority teachers are inspirational figures for minority students, epitomising success and achievement (Griffin, 2018), which in turn reduces negative self-concept and self-stereotyping. This is particularly critical in the white-dominated teaching profession in Australia, where ethnic minority students are rarely taught by teachers from the same ethnic background (Rice et al., 2023). When students see themselves in their teacher, they are more likely to envision themselves in that role. The presence of ethnic minority teachers and cultural representation in schools enhances the sense of belonging among ethnic minority students. They also serve as resource persons, helping to build connections between the school and the local ethnic minority community. As ethnic minority teachers often possess a better understanding of cultural issues, their absence could mean that the voices of ethnic minority students are not heard and their perspectives are not reflected in day-to-day classroom interactions (Landertinger et al., 2021). This results in alienation, otherness, and not belonging in school. These negative feelings could then translate into not wanting to work in schools.

2.2. Constrained by Culture and Family Expectations

Cultural background is also significant in individuals’ career decisions, particularly for individuals from ethnic minorities (Duggan, 2023). In their survey of 405 university students, Calitz et al. (2022) found that culture influences students’ career choices, particularly among those with different home languages. Individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds were more likely to feel cultural pressure to choose careers deemed acceptable by their family than non-ethnic minorities. Becoming doctors, lawyers, or accountants was considered the most “accepted” career choice (Duggan, 2023; Young, 2022). In a survey of ethnic minority students, the Scottish education authority found that some students were discouraged by their families from becoming teachers but opted for ‘higher aspirational careers’ (Scottish Government, 2018). Separate studies have also shown that some individuals regard teaching as a less attractive, “backup” profession, or a stepping stone to other careers (Kyriacou & Coulthard, 2018; Suryani & George, 2021).

Across Australian communities, status-oriented parental expectations commonly prioritise “prestige” professions such as medicine, law and engineering, which has been documented in local studies of immigrant families’ influence on subject and career choices (Kewalramani & Phillipson, 2020). At the same time, these expectations are not uniform within any ethnic group but instead intersect with migration histories, parental recognition, and socio-economic constraints (Allen et al., 2019; Maire & Ho, 2024). Families with recent migration, unrecognised qualifications, or financial pressure may steer children toward higher-paying or higher-status careers, while later-generation or highly educated parents sometimes support broader choices, including teaching (Patfield et al., 2022). This intersectional lens helps explain why teaching that is perceived as lower in status and publicly undervalued may be deprioritised despite students’ interest (Allen et al., 2019).

2.3. Poor Perception of the Teaching Profession

A negative perception of the teaching profession could deter interested individuals from considering teaching as a career. For example, the OECD survey found that only 45% of Australian teachers believe that society values the teaching profession (OECD, 2020). Research in Australia has found that factors such as low salaries, low social respect, and the negative media image of teachers have affected the profession’s ability to attract high-quality candidates (Goss et al., 2019; Heffernan et al., 2019; Yip, 2025). For example, the distorted image of teachers as underachievers (Bahr et al., 2018) and the misrepresentation of the nature of their work affect the profession’s image and attractiveness (Mockler, 2022). For individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds, the perception that their race and ethnicity may result in disadvantage in the profession can also deter them from pursuing a career in teaching (Sharp & Aston, 2024).

2.4. Negative Self-Concept

Limiting beliefs and negative self-perception about one’s ability to succeed as a teacher can deter individuals from considering a teaching career. This refers to an individual’s belief in his/her ability to be a good teacher (Mombaers et al., 2023). Externally imposed barriers to the profession could compound this negative self-concept. For example, Hilton and Saunders (2023) found that the literacy and numeracy test, a graduation requirement for student teachers, has inherently disadvantaged individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds. Studies have also indicated that the situational judgment test, a prerequisite for most ITE courses in Australia, could disadvantage ethnic minority students (Bardach et al., 2021). Given that these hurdles to the teaching profession could potentially disadvantage ethnic minority students, they could perpetuate a negative self-concept about their ability to succeed in the ITE course and their confidence to succeed as teachers. It could also give rise to the negative view that teacher education programs privilege people from the majority ethnic group.

3. Theory of Reflexive Decision-Making

We adopt Archer’s (2007) theory of reflexive decision-making as the theoretical framework to understand what influenced our participants’ decisions not to be teachers. Archer (2007) maintains that individuals’ decisions are shaped by ‘emergent properties’, which are personal, structural, and cultural conditions that could influence one’s decisions. Personal emergent properties (PEPs) refer to beliefs, dispositions, personal capital, and prior experiences. In the context of this study, this refers to participants’ beliefs about themselves and their memories of schooling, which could influence their decisions about not wanting to teach in schools. Structural emergent properties (SEPs) include societal structures, institutional practices, and resources such as time and money that may influence one’s decision. For example, an individual facing financial constraints may choose a degree course with lower tuition fees or shorter duration to enter the labour market sooner. They may also choose degree courses that could lead to jobs with higher salaries. Cultural emergent properties (CEPs), in our study context, refer to the societal perception of teaching and how the people in the participants’ immediate environment view the teaching profession. Archer (2007) suggests that these emergent properties are interrelated and work together to shape an individual’s decision. Archer’s theory of reflexive decision-making provides a robust framework for analysing our findings on the career decisions of ethnic minority individuals. Figure 1 maps how Archer’s personal, structural, and cultural emergent properties influence students’ decisions to enrol in ITE.

4. Method

4.1. Participants

Participants in this study are individuals who (i) self-identify as people of ethnic minority backgrounds and (ii) have considered but not studied ITE courses in Australian universities. After obtaining ethics approval, participants were recruited through social media advertising and flyers distributed on university campuses. A total of 152 participants completed the survey, with 48 also participating in the focus group interview.

Among the survey respondents, 44% identified as Indigenous Australians or Torres Strait Islanders. Seventy-three per cent of participants were born in Australia, while the remaining 27% were born overseas, coming from countries such as China, India, Indonesia, Germany, Kenya, Nigeria, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand. Eighty-two per cent speak English at home. Of the 18% who do not, Mandarin is the most spoken language, followed by Hindi, Bahasa Indonesia, Punjabi, Creole, and Spanish. Male participants comprised 70.4% of the respondents and females, 26.3%, and 3.3% identified as gender diverse. The 48 focus group participants broadly reflect the characteristics of the survey sample. They come from diverse disciplines, including Humanities and Social Sciences (excluding Education) (n = 16, 33%), Sciences (n = 10, 21%), Business and Economics (n = 9, 19%), Engineering (n = 6, 13%), and Medicine and Life Sciences (n = 3, 6%). Two participants are enrolled in double-degree programs across disciplines, while the remaining two did not specify their course of study.

4.2. Data Collection

The study was conducted within a constructivist interpretivism paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), which assumes that participants can describe and reflect on the factors influencing their decision-making regarding their choice of degree courses. Data was collected through a survey followed by a focus group interview. The survey, piloted with individuals not involved in the study, comprised a combination of statements about the teaching profession and teacher education degrees that participants rated on a 5-point Likert scale (e.g., “Teaching is a well-respected profession in my culture” and “It is difficult to get into a teacher education degree course because of the entry requirement”) and open-ended questions (e.g., “When you think of teaching, what keywords come to mind?” and “What would have encouraged you to consider teaching as a career?”). These questions were adapted from the literature on teacher career choices (e.g., Alvariñas-Villaverde et al., 2022; Silva & Taveira, 2025). To ensure sufficient time for in-depth discussion, the focus group participants were divided into 12 groups, each comprising 3 to 5 individuals. To ensure participants’ anonymity, responses were attributed to their focus groups (FG 1 to FG 12) rather than being individually identified, due to the sensitive nature of the participants’ stories and, in some cases, their discomfort when recalling painful memories. The focus group sessions lasted around an hour each. In these sessions, we asked participants to elaborate on what prevented them from choosing a teacher education degree among their university course choices.

4.3. Data Analysis

Participants’ responses to the Likert scale questions were analysed descriptively, while qualitative data from the open-ended questions and the focus group interview were coded and analysed thematically (Braun & Clarke, 2013). Robust discussions around emerging themes between the two authors foster reflexivity. The recursive coding process involved several rounds of iteration and thorough discussions between the authors before the codes were finalised. These codes were then grouped into sub-themes and subsequently into main themes. Combined, these data contributed to answering the three research questions. A second coding round was conducted deductively to categorise the themes according to Archer’s (2007) emergent properties.

5. Results

5.1. What Is the Perception of the Teaching Profession Among People from Ethnic Minority Backgrounds?

To answer this question, we asked participants to list the keywords that came to mind when considering the teaching profession and generated a word cloud (Figure 1). Only words that appeared at least three times were picked up in the word cloud. The most common keywords associated with teaching are hard work (15 counts), followed by knowledge (13 counts), stressful (11 counts), passion (9 counts), impact (9 counts), and student (6 counts). Low pay, professionalism, discipline, and patience had three counts each.

In addition to the above keywords with at least three counts, participants also listed dispositions such as nurturing and dedication as keywords associated with teaching. Participants perceived teaching to be a respectable and noble profession that instils knowledge and impacts lives, but they also noted that it is challenging and highly demanding and requires hard work. Participants considered teaching a meaningful profession that contributes to society, although it is an underrated profession with a low social status. Besides noting that the teachers’ work is stressful (11 counts), they also perceived that teachers work long hours and are underpaid. While job stability is highlighted, participants also perceived teaching as a stagnant profession. To enhance transparency, Figure 2 also includes a list of the most frequent terms (top 10) used to generate the word cloud, along with their raw counts.

5.2. What Inhibits People from Ethnic Minority Backgrounds from Considering Teaching as a Career?

Our analyses of the qualitative data revealed six themes and their supporting sub-themes (

Table 1. Inhibitors to the teaching career.

#	Themes	Sub-Themes
1	Personal beliefs	Unsuitable personality traits Lack of confidence
2	Racism and discrimination	Stereotype Exclusion
3	Financial consideration	Low salary Low return on investment
4	Career pathway	Limited career progression
5	Status and image of the teaching	Low status of teachers Lack of recognition
6	Social influence	Discouragement from important others

). This section elaborates on these themes and sub-themes with supporting quotes from the data.

5.2.1. Theme 1: Personal Beliefs

Personal beliefs is a prominent theme influencing participants’ career decisions. Within this theme, two sub-themes—unsuitable personality traits and lack of confidence—emerged strongly as factors inhibiting participants from choosing to be teachers.

Unsuitable Personality Traits

Several participants felt that they lacked the appropriate personality traits to be effective teachers. They perceived that teaching requires certain personal qualities and mindsets, such as courage, patience, and passion. One participant elaborated, “It takes a lot of courage to prepare yourself to teach others. It takes patience; you need to have a passion for it. It’s not just about the money or fame you’re going to get” (FG 3). Having the appropriate disposition and values are also crucial, as noted by another participant: “You need to have the right ethics and values and be able to accommodate the diversity in the classroom. You must be an active listener and be consistent in your actions.” (FG 2).

Lack of Confidence

The participants’ lack of confidence in their teaching ability also became apparent in the interviews. Several felt that their communication skills were not good enough for interacting with students in the classroom setting: “If I had the confidence to stand before students in class, I would have gone for teaching. I love that content. The profession is actually nice, but I am not confident and bold enough to stand in front and talk to a group of students.” (FG 9). Another participant alluded to his anxiety about facing and speaking to large crowds: “Some people like me find it hard speaking to the crowd. As a teacher, you have to face different crowds and speak to them. I’m kind of shy, so I didn’t consider teaching as a profession.” (FG 10). It was also evident in the interview that participants perceived being a teacher requires strong intellectual and professional competence: “Teachers need to be able to understand and analyse complex information, process it to make it simpler for students to understand.” (FG 3). “You have students who are very smart, so you don’t want to make yourself look foolish. You have to be very good at what you do to deliver a particular topic effectively.” (FG 4).

This low sense of confidence in being unable to live up to the expectations of teaching is likely related to participants’ perception that it is a highly demanding job. In our survey, 86% of the participants perceived that teaching is hard work—physically, mentally and emotionally draining—and another 86% said that the expectations placed on teachers are high, particularly in managing students’ behaviour and achieving high test scores.

We also noted that participants’ low confidence extends to the teacher education program. In our survey, 64% of participants perceived that gaining entry into a teacher education degree program is difficult due to the entry requirements, and another 62% believed that the course might be too demanding for them. However, in the focus group interviews, we found that participants had little knowledge about the teacher education course. Hence, these views seem to stem from participants’ perceptions.

5.2.2. Theme 2: Racism and Discrimination

Racism and discrimination is another theme that emerged from our data and is explored through the sub-themes of stereotype and exclusion.

Stereotype

Perceived discrimination arising from stereotypical attitudes held by people at school can lead to negative memories of education and discourage students from ethnic minority backgrounds from pursuing a career in teaching. One participant shared a particularly poignant story:

“I was in Year 10. We had a one-to-one session with the career counsellor to discuss where we should go for further studies after we finish high school. When I entered the room, the counsellor, a white man, looked at me and immediately took out the course brochures for TAFE1. He didn’t even ask me if I was going to university. In fact, my results are quite good, and I am studying an engineering course now. Just because I am black, he assumed that my results were not good and that I could not make it into university”.

(FG 1)

The same participant, a migrant from Kenya, added that this was just one of the many instances where he felt discriminated against in schools. He did not consider returning to school as “there are many unpleasant memories” (FG 1).

Exclusion

Conversations about schooling also appeared to evoke painful memories of exclusion for several other participants: “Sometimes there is a language barrier, and sometimes there is racial discrimination. Because of your race and because you are not from a particular place, it was difficult to participate in activities and get along with people in school” (FG 10). “During lunchtime, when we took out the food we brought from home, some people in school found our food strange” (FG 1). While some participants were unable to recall specific incidents during our interview, they hinted at a general sense of being an outsider: “Sometimes, it’s about feeling unconfident and unsafe in areas where the majority population looks different and speaks differently from you (FG 6)”. These findings corroborated our survey, as 43% of the participants indicated that they did not consider teaching due to negative experiences in schools.

The feeling of exclusion from a predominantly ‘white’ profession is also evident in our survey data. Fifty-three per cent of our survey participants said that the teaching profession is not welcoming to people from ethnic minority backgrounds. A participant in the focus group interview remarked: “For those of us who are known by our colour, being Black, people don’t think that teaching is for us” (FG 7). Some participants also perceived teaching as a culturally informed profession, and not being from a dominant culture makes it more challenging. “Teaching is culturally inclined. You need to have knowledge of the particular culture. Migrants like us don’t fit well. You get bullied by students. Some parents also don’t treat non-white teachers well” (FG 11). This same view is echoed in the free-text responses in our survey: “Some students are very rude to teachers who are not white.” A focus group participant aptly said, “The lack of interest for us to go into teaching is because we know that we will be discriminated against” (FG 12).

5.2.3. Theme 3: Financial Consideration

Financial consideration was identified as a critical barrier to teaching. Our data showed that this relates to low teacher salaries and the perceived low return on investment of the teacher education degree.

Low Teacher Salary

While teaching is generally viewed positively, with over 80% of participants considering it a rewarding profession and a stable career, a significant proportion (78%) felt that teachers’ salaries were low and not adequately compensated. A survey respondent noted, “Teaching is not well paid but is a very demanding profession.” This can negatively affect the attractiveness of teaching. Seventy-seven per cent of respondents also believed that opportunities to earn higher salaries over time in the teaching profession were limited. One focus group participant mentioned how teachers’ salaries influenced his decision: “Because teachers’ job has low salaries, I don’t really want to choose to study a teaching degree.” (FG 7). Several other participants echoed this: “I think teachers are not really given the pay and the treatment they deserve” (FG 8). “The teaching job doesn’t pay well here” (FG 11). “Teachers are not paid the kind of money they deserve” (FG 4).

Low Return on Investment

Some participants viewed investing in tuition fees for an education or teaching degree as not particularly worthwhile: “My mum says that if I were to pay for a university degree, I should study science or engineering as those jobs will pay me more, instead of spending the money on an education degree, because teachers don’t earn as much” (FG 1). Another participant explained the financial factors influencing his course choice: “I will go for degree courses like marketing, economics, business management, and accounting. The jobs in these areas pay better than teachers. I won’t choose an education degree since the tuition fee will be about the same” (FG 10). Many students prefer to invest their money in university courses that promise better financial returns after graduation. A similar view is reflected in the survey free-text response: “The cost [of the degree] is high, including the time and money spent, but the salary is not quite competitive.” Financial considerations also featured in the survey responses, with 53% of participants finding a teacher education degree too expensive for them. Although the cost of a teacher education degree is comparable to, or even lower than, other degree courses in Australian universities, our participants reasoned that it is not worthwhile as it does not lead to a high-paying job.

5.2.4. Theme 4: Career Pathway

The theme of career pathway is identified from the data and explored through the sub-theme of limited career progression.

Limited Career Progression

Several participants believed that teachers from ethnic minority backgrounds face barriers in their career advancement: “As an Asian, there are very limited options in teaching, the career progression is limited as well” (FG 11). Others expressed this more explicitly: “For people like me, to get promoted in teaching, I will need to fight very hard, much harder than other people” (FG 1); “Promotion opportunities for people like us are limited. They like teachers who are local, local white teachers” (FG 9). The perception of limited career opportunities was also voiced by a survey respondent: “I wouldn’t like the stagnant career opportunities. It doesn’t look like there is much career progression.” This is corroborated by survey data showing that 75% of participants see their career progression in teaching as limited.

5.2.5. Theme 5: Status and Image of Teaching

A further theme that influences participants’ teaching career decisions is the status of teachers, which is unpacked into the low status of teachers and the lack of recognition in our data.

Low Status of Teachers

Compared to the traditionally high-status professions in medicine and law, the perceived low social standing of teachers may have discouraged some individuals from pursuing a career in teaching. One business student expressed this view: “I think accountants, as we all know, are more reputable in society. It’s not that teachers are not good, but I don’t think teachers are respected. They don’t get valued” (FG 8). “If you tell people that you are an engineer, they will give you greater respect compared to teachers” (FG 5). “Teachers are necessary in society. If we can raise the social standing of teachers, pay them more and treat them better, then people might want to consider teaching” (FG 1). A survey participant noted in the free-text response: “Teaching is not regarded as a particularly skilled profession, so it is sometimes considered lower status than those who require more skill.” Our survey revealed that 71% of participants believed that teaching is not highly valued. Sixty per cent of the survey respondents also believed that mainstream media portrays the teaching profession in a negative light. As a result, 54% of the participants stated that only students who failed to gain admission to more popular university courses may opt for a degree in teaching. Sixty-five per cent admitted they might choose teaching as a last resort if other careers do not work out.

Lack of Recognition

An overwhelming majority of participants believed that teachers deserve more recognition. Our focus group participant observed, “Teachers are not getting the support from the school and the kind of treatment from the government they wish and are supposed to get” (FG 5). This lack of acknowledgement often results in teaching not being viewed as an appealing career option. Participants also noted, “Teaching is a very good profession, but not a highly reputable one” (FG 4). Others also feel that elevating the social status of teachers could make the profession more attractive: “I think if teachers are treated better for the work they do, they are recognised more publicly, then more people may want to consider teaching” (FG 12). The lack of recognition for teachers’ work also appears in the survey data as a significant issue, as demonstrated in the free-text response below:

“Recognition for teachers varies, but I feel they don’t always receive the level of recognition they deserve. Teaching is a demanding profession that involves shaping the next generation’s future. Yet, factors like low salaries, high workloads, and societal misconceptions can contribute to the perception that teachers are undervalued.”

5.2.6. Theme 6: Social Influence

The impact of social influence is the final theme identified as affecting participants’ decisions about their teaching careers. This theme is further analysed into discouragement from significant others.

Discouragement from Important Others

For some participants, the decision not to be teachers is due to discouragement by people around them, including their parents: “While I was growing up, I actually wanted to be a teacher. But then, my mom said, ‘You want to go to university and spend the entire three or four years studying just to come out and teach?’ Why, when there are better courses out there? If you want to study education, then you will have to support yourself through the course financially” (FGD 9). Several others also mentioned that their family and friends discouraged them from teaching: “They advise me to go into a ‘higher profession’, one that is more well-recognised in society” (FG 5). “Whenever I talk about teaching with my family, they always say there are better professionals out there” (FG 1). While 85% of the survey participants stated that teaching is a well-respected profession in their culture, this finding contrasted with the survey results, which indicated that 61% of the participants had been discouraged by their family members from pursuing a career as a teacher. Additionally, 43% and 45% said that they had been discouraged by their friends and teachers respectively to join the teaching profession.

5.3. What Would Have Persuaded People from Ethnic Minority Backgrounds to Consider Teaching?

As these participants were not studying for a degree in teacher education, we wanted to know what would have persuaded them to consider teaching as a career. To do this, we asked them to identify factors that would have otherwise encouraged them to do so. Participants could list as many factors as they liked. We received 698 entries, which we then inductively coded into 12 sub-themes and subsequently clustered into four themes: financial incentives, status and image of teaching, career pathway, and the influence of important others.

Table 2. Themes and sub-themes that would have encouraged participants to consider teaching.

Theme: Status and image of teaching	35% *
Sub-themes:
Positive image of teachers in the society	10%
Public recognition of teachers’ work and contribution	10%
Higher social status in the society	9%
Stronger publicity and recruitment drive to join the profession	6%
Financial incentives	31%
Sub-themes
Government initiative to increase the salaries of teachers	11%
Teaching scholarships/stipends for teacher education degree	11%
Reduction in tuition fees for teacher education degree	9%
Career pathway	24%
Sub-themes
Guaranteed jobs after graduation	9%
Clear career progression and promotion pathway	8%
Opportunities to try out teaching before deciding to enrol in ITE	7%
Social influence	11%
Sub-themes
Encouragement from family members	6%
Encouragement from people who are teachers	5%

* Numbers do not round up to 100% due to rounding off to the nearest whole number.

shows the themes and the related sub-themes, as well as the frequency of their occurrence out of the 698 entries.

The status and image of the teaching profession feature most prominently as influencing participants’ career decisions, accounting for 35% of the entries. A positive image of teachers, public recognition of teachers’ work and contributions, a higher social status for teachers in society, and strong publicity and recruitment drives all contributed to participants’ decisions. Financial incentives is the next important theme affecting participants’ decision to be teachers, accounting for 31% of the entries. Increasing teachers’ salaries, providing scholarships or stipends for teacher education degrees, and reducing tuition fees are also significant factors. Besides financial incentives, the factors related to career pathway are all important in participants’ teaching career decisions, accounting for 24% of the entries. These include guaranteed employment after graduation and a clear career progression and promotion pathway. Participants also suggested that the opportunities to try out teaching in schools would have encouraged them to consider a career in teaching. The last theme relates to social influence. Compared to the other three themes, this last theme is relatively less prominent, accounting for only 11% of the entries. However, it is still meaningful, given that it reinforced our earlier findings, which showed that social influence, particularly the views of parents, teachers, and friends, can influence participants’ decision to teach.

6. Discussion

To understand the teaching career decisions of participants in our study, we synthesised the findings based on Archer’s emergent properties. As described earlier, Archer’s emergent properties are conditions that influence decision-making processes. These properties can be personal (values and dispositions), structural (institutions, time, and money), or cultural (societal values). Our findings on the teaching career decisions of ethnic minority university students can be understood through Archer’s concept of emerging properties. The

Table 3. Enabling (E) and inhibiting (I) emerging properties influencing teaching career decision.

Personal Emerging Properties (PEPs)	Structural Emerging Properties (SEPs)	Cultural Emerging Properties (CEPs)
Personal beliefs Unsuitable personality traits (I) Lack of confidence (I)	Racism and discrimination Stereotype (I) Exclusion (I)	Status and image of teaching Low status of teacher (I) Lack of recognition (I) Positive image of teachers in society (E) Public recognition of teachers’ work (E) Higher social status of teachers (E) Stronger publicity and recruitment drive (E)
	Financial consideration Low salary (I) Low return on investment (I) Increased salary (E) Teaching scholarship/stipends (E) Reduced tuition fee (E)
	Career pathway Limited career progression (I) Guaranteed jobs after graduation (E) Clear career progression and promotion pathway (E) Opportunities to try out teaching before deciding to enrol in ITE (E)	Social influence Discouragement from important others (I) Encouragement from family members (E) Encouragement from people who are teachers (E)

summarises the personal, structural, and cultural emerging properties that both enabled and inhibited our participants’ decisions regarding teaching careers.

6.1. Personal Emerging Properties (PEPs)

We identified personal beliefs as the PEP that inhibit participants’ teaching decisions. The perception that they lack suitable personality traits and confidence to meet the work expectations of teachers discouraged participants from considering a career in teaching. Some also believed they might be unable to handle the demands of the teacher education degree program. Past studies on higher education students found that negative self-concept (Stahl et al., 2020) and lack of confidence in academic ability (Hutchings et al., 2018) disproportionately affect ethnic minority students and influence their beliefs about their capacity to succeed. Our findings are consistent with this. Although most participants agreed that teaching is a respectable profession, they lacked confidence in their ability to teach effectively or succeed in the university’s teacher education program. However, during focus group interviews, it became clear that these views were based on perceptions rather than actual knowledge of the teacher education programs’ expectations. The reciprocal relationship between self-concept and academic achievement is well established. A positive self-concept, often fostered through feeling valued and accepted at school and via leadership roles, significantly enhances academic achievement and boosts self-confidence (Marsh & Köller, 2004). While we cannot establish a direct causal link in our data, we believe that the negative self-concept among our participants could be partially linked to their adverse experiences of discrimination and exclusion in schools (as described in Theme 2).

6.2. Structural Emerging Properties (SEPs)

The structural emerging properties that inhibit participants from becoming teachers are racism and discrimination, financial consideration, and career pathway. Experiences of racism and discrimination as students have a critical impact on students’ teaching career decisions. Participants in our study shared that they often felt excluded and discriminated against in their school environments, which led to their negative memories and a reluctance to re-enter such spaces as professionals. Past studies have shown that students who experience racism and discrimination during their schooling are less likely to pursue careers in teaching (Smith, 2016). García and Ramirez (2015) similarly noted that experiences of racism in educational settings can create long-lasting impacts on career choices. These earlier experiences can create a sense of exclusion in students’ everyday lives and a belief that they will face similar challenges in teaching.

Financial consideration is another SEP that features in participants’ teaching decisions. For participants who had considered but ultimately did not choose to teach, extrinsic factors such as salary, the availability of scholarships or stipends, and tuition fees are important. They pointed out the low salary associated with teaching, which they felt did not justify the investment in a teacher education degree. Many expressed concerns about the financial viability of teaching compared to other careers. They noted that the costs of tuition and the comparatively lower salaries discouraged them from considering teaching as a profession. These findings align with the existing literature on how extrinsic factors, such as salary and tuition costs, influence individuals’ decisions to pursue a career in teaching (Goss et al., 2019). Offering financial incentives not only attracts more people into teaching but also helps to recruit high-quality teacher candidates (Dolton & Marcenaro-Gutierrez, 2011). For example, a recent study by the Australian Government found that offering a $30,000 per annum scholarship increases the likelihood of a young high achiever choosing a teaching job by more than 12 percentage points (Australian Government, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2022).

Career pathway relates to career progression and promotion. There was a perception of limited career progression and promotion opportunities, particularly for individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds. Participants felt that the teaching profession lacked a clear and rewarding career ladder, further diminishing its attractiveness as a career choice. Our results showed that having guaranteed jobs after graduation, a clear career progression and promotion pathway, and opportunities to try out teaching in schools are enabling conditions that would encourage participants to consider teaching as a career. These findings align with international studies that indicate a well-designed career ladder structure, which provides opportunities for professional growth and offers incentives and rewards for high performance, can enhance the attractiveness of the profession and meet the career aspirations of teacher candidates (OECD, 2019). We also found that offering a guaranteed job after graduation is a strong incentive for prospective teacher candidates. This concurs with an Australian government study, which found that specifying guaranteed ongoing employment in a nearby school was the second most attractive incentive (after financial incentives) for people to consider a teaching career (Australian Government, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2022).

What is new in our findings is students’ desire to try out teaching in schools before deciding whether to enrol in ITE. This aspect is rarely explored in the literature on teacher career choice. While the impact of work immersion on students’ career choices is widely acknowledged, and there are studies on how this influences students’ decisions in various careers, such as engineering and accounting (e.g., McGrath & Murphy, 2016), studies investigating the impact of work immersion on teaching career choice are rare. This could be because schools rarely organise work immersion for teaching careers. The assumption is that, since students interact with teachers in the classroom daily, they already know what the teachers do; hence, work immersion for teaching is unnecessary. This assumption is problematic and deprives interested students of the opportunities to see teaching from the teachers’ perspectives.

6.3. Cultural Emerging Properties (CEPs)

The cultural emerging properties that influence participants’ decision not to teach operate on two different layers: (a) the broader societal status and image of teachers and (b) social influence from family and important others. We identified that the status and image of teaching contain both inhibitors and enablers in students’ teaching career decisions. The low status and lack of recognition of teachers in society were significant inhibitors. Participants expressed that teaching is often seen as a low-prestige career, which dissuades them from pursuing it. Conversely, the profession attracts more candidates in cultures where teachers are highly regarded and publicly recognised. Participants also mentioned that a positive image, societal respect towards teachers, and a strong publicity and recruitment drive would encourage them to consider the profession. This finding reinforces what has been emphasised in previous research: societal respect and recognition of the teaching profession is critical to attracting individuals to the field (Dolton & Marcenaro-Gutierrez, 2011; Hanushek & Rivkin, 2012; Yip, 2025).

Another CEP is social influence. We found that family, friends, and other important people in an individual’s life can significantly influence their career decisions. Socialisation influences, such as positive encouragement from family members or mentors, increase the likelihood of entering the teaching profession (Duggan, 2023; Young, 2022). On the other hand, negative experiences in teaching or the teacher education program may cause one to discourage his/her friends and family members from becoming teachers (Yip, 2025). Given that more than half of the Australian public and teachers said that they would not recommend teaching as a career to their children or students (Heffernan et al., 2019), this significantly and negatively affects the number of young Australians entering the teaching profession.

Although we have discussed societal perceptions and family expectations separately for analytical clarity, our findings indicate that these two levels are closely connected. Family expectations were often influenced by broader social narratives about the teaching profession’s status, suggesting that societal and familial cultural influences reinforce one another instead of functioning independently.

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

The study examines how individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds perceive the teaching profession, the factors that deter them from pursuing a teaching career, and what might motivate them to consider a teaching career. Our findings indicate that participants view teaching as a respectable profession that demands hard work and professional expertise. Their decision to pursue a teaching career is shaped by personal factors (personal beliefs), structural factors (racism and discrimination, financial considerations, and career pathways), and cultural factors (the status and image of teaching, as well as social influence). Each of these aspects is further detailed in sub-themes in Table 3.

While we recognise that these factors are not unique but relevant to all young people considering a teaching career, our interaction with the participants indicated that these factors disproportionately affect young people from ethnic minority backgrounds. This is especially true when the factors are compounded by their negative experiences in schools, the lack of teachers as aspirational role models, and a negative self-concept regarding their ability to succeed in the profession. We also found that providing opportunities to try out teaching, such as through a work immersion program in high school, could enable interested students to learn more about the job from teachers’ perspectives and make informed decisions about pursuing teacher education at the university level.

Strategies to encourage young people from ethnic minority backgrounds to enter teaching must account for personal, structural, and cultural factors. On a personal level, providing opportunities for these young people to connect with teachers from similar backgrounds shows that teaching is accessible and welcoming. It is also crucial to make information about teacher education programs available through school career counselling services and other channels.

A more proactive approach to fostering an inclusive school culture free from stereotyping and exclusion is essential at the structural level. Practical strategies include adjusting the school curriculum to ensure that minority perspectives are represented. Professional development is crucial in shaping teachers’ multicultural attitudes, beliefs, and practices. However, this should not be a scattered collaboration among a small group of teachers but a whole-school approach to ensure the transfer of learning into daily classroom practice and communication.

While offering financial incentives to attract people into teaching is not new, we suggest that a means-tested approach to scholarships and tuition fees, combined with an increase in starting salaries for early-career teachers, could assist those considering teaching but limited by financial concerns. A clear career pathway in teaching, featuring opportunities for promotion and diverse roles such as in school leadership, being expert teachers, and curriculum specialists within the education sector, will help dispel the myth of teaching as a stagnant career. Similarly, providing students with opportunities to learn about different aspects of the profession through work shadowing and immersion can help foster a deeper appreciation and understanding of the broad range of jobs in the education sector that teachers can progress into.

At the cultural level, enhancing the status of teachers by fostering a positive image of the profession is essential for making teaching more attractive. Public campaigns that acknowledge teachers’ contributions, avenues for seeking teachers’ feedback and integrating it into policy decisions, and improvements in teachers’ working conditions will significantly motivate teachers to inspire their students to pursue the same profession. Ultimately, with higher teacher status, a positive public perception, a competitive salary, and a clear career progression pathway, teachers and parents are more likely to encourage students and children to consider teaching as a career.