Agency in Digital Education: Empowering Students and Teachers in Technology-Rich Learning Environments

1. Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Why Now?

In the rapidly evolving landscape of digital technology, the imperative for fostering agency in digital learning has become paramount. The unprecedented acceleration of technological advancements necessitates a corresponding adaptability among both educators and learners. As artificial intelligence (AI), automation, and digitally mediated learning environments proliferate, the ability to critically engage with and strategically navigate these tools is indispensable (AACSB, 2024; Education Next, 2024). The digital transformation of education is causing a fundamental shift in pedagogical paradigms, compelling institutions to prioritise the cultivation of digital agency as an essential competency (Brevik et al., 2019; Gamlem et al., 2025; Krumsvik, 2024).

The integration of AI-driven learning assistants, personalised learning environments, and digital pedagogies introduces both profound opportunities and formidable challenges. While such technologies facilitate enhanced engagement, efficiency, and personalised learning trajectories, they simultaneously engender risks of overreliance, diminished critical engagement, and ethical dilemmas (Kasneci et al., 2023; Brookings Institution, 2023). Consequently, digital agency should be understood not merely as digital literacy, but as an expansive construct encompassing critical thinking, self-regulation, and epistemic agency in digital contexts (Siddiq et al., 2024).

Moreover, the exigencies of an AI-driven global economy underscore the necessity of reconfiguring educational approaches to align with emerging professional landscapes. The future workforce will demand individuals who can critically evaluate AI-generated content, responsibly employ digital tools, and retain human oversight in an increasingly automated world (University of Illinois, 2023; Salish Current, 2025). Without a concerted effort to cultivate agency, students risk assuming passive roles as consumers of digital content rather than becoming engaged, autonomous learners. Likewise, the digital agency of educators opens up opportunities to effectively mediate and guide student interactions within these evolving educational ecologies.

2. Theoretical Foundations of Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology

Agency in digital learning is conceptualised through a multiplicity of theoretical lenses, each elucidating distinct dimensions of autonomous engagement and transformative capacity. Drawing upon socio-cultural, cognitive, and transformative learning theories, digital agency is fundamentally predicated upon the capacity of individuals to exercise intentionality, autonomy, and reflexivity in their interactions with digital technologies.

Vygotsky’s Cultural–Historical perspective foregrounds the mediated nature of cognition development, asserting that digital tools function as mediators of intellectual development (Engeness & Lund, 2018). By expanding upon this premise and taking an Activity Theory approach, digital agency is situated within broader systemic interactions, wherein individuals, artefacts, and institutional structures coalesce to shape learning processes (Engeström, 1987).

A particularly salient construct within this discourse is transformative agency, which transcends functional digital competence by encompassing the ability to critique, modify, and innovate within digital environments (Aagaard & Lund, 2019). It necessitates not only technical proficiency, but also the epistemological and ethical discernment to challenge prevailing digital norms and structures (Mouta et al., 2024; Siddiq et al., 2024). Given the pervasive integration of AI in educational domains, the development of transformative digital agency is imperative to ensure that individuals do not merely adapt to technological paradigms, but actively contribute to shaping the trajectory of digital learning and digital technology itself (Engeness & Gamlem, 2025).

As education systems grapple with the affordances and constraints of digital transformation, fostering agency among both students and educators is essential. In subsequent sections, this editorial will elucidate the conceptualisations of student and teacher agency as presented in contemporary research, culminating in a discussion on strategies to enhance digital agency within educational ecosystems.

3. Conceptualising Student Agency in Digital Learning

Student agency in digital learning refers to the ability of learners to make informed choices, set learning goals, and regulate their engagement with digital tools. Studies indicate that student agency is closely linked to motivation, autonomy, and digital literacy (Goriss-Hunter et al., 2022). Digital environments may facilitate student agency by offering interactive, flexible, and personalised learning experiences (Wahyuni & Ariyanto, 2024). However, these benefits are not automatic and require intentional pedagogical design (Kure et al., 2023). Students are less likely to exercise agency when digital tools are used passively or when teacher guidance is insufficient (Lantz-Andersson et al., 2022).

A recurring challenge in fostering student agency is ensuring equitable access to digital learning opportunities. Kure et al. (2023) found that while Norwegian secondary students frequently used technology for basic tasks such as internet searches and document creation, higher-order digital skills such as critical evaluation and collaboration were underdeveloped. Similarly, it is argued that while students appreciate autonomy in digital learning, structured guidance remains essential to help them navigate complex digital environments effectively (Damşa et al., 2021; Goriss-Hunter et al., 2022; Kimber et al., 2002).

To enhance student agency, educators are encouraged to incorporate scaffolding strategies that balance autonomy with structured support (Engeness & Gamlem, 2025). Project-based learning (PBL) and inquiry-based learning (IBL) are particularly effective in promoting a type of student agency that positions students as active agents in their learning process. Studies show that when students engage in design-based projects, such as multimedia creation or digital storytelling, they exhibit higher levels of engagement and agency (Goriss-Hunter et al., 2022; Stenalt et al., 2024). Additionally, digital platforms that allow students to customise their learning paths, such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), may further support student agency by fostering self-directed learning (Rasa et al., 2024).

4. Conceptualising Teacher Agency in Digital Learning

Teacher agency in digital learning refers to the ability of educators to integrate digital tools effectively, adapt pedagogical strategies, and critically engage with digital policies and resources (Korhonen et al., 2024; Novoa-Echaurren, 2024). Research suggests that teacher agency is influenced by institutional support, professional development opportunities, and the digital self-efficacy of teachers (Mouta et al., 2024; Wahyuni & Ariyanto, 2024).

During the COVID-19 crisis, teachers demonstrated significant digital agency by adapting to remote instruction despite limited prior experience (Damşa et al., 2021; Gudmundsdottir & Hathaway, 2020). Damşa et al. (2021) categorised the digital agency of teachers into three profiles: (i) those who passively replicated traditional teaching online, (ii) those who experimented with digital tools but faced challenges, and (iii) those who fully embraced the digital learning transformation. These findings underscore the importance of digital competence and professional development in fostering the digital agency of teachers (Engeness & Gamlem, 2025; Kimber et al., 2002; Korhonen et al., 2024).

However, it is argued that teacher agency is not only about using digital tools, but also about shaping educational policies and institutional practices (Aagaard & Lund, 2019). Teachers who engage in professional learning communities and reflective practice discussions are more likely to develop a strong sense of digital agency (Lantz-Andersson et al., 2022; Singh & Engeness, 2021). Collaborative discussions help teachers to refine their pedagogical approaches, share successful digital strategies, and navigate the challenges associated with digital transformation (Novoa-Echaurren, 2024; Stenalt et al., 2024).

5. Enhancing Student and Teacher Agency in Digital Learning

In times of rapidly evolving technological changes, fostering agency in digital learning necessitates an integrative and multi-faceted approach that synthesises pedagogical, technological, and institutional strategies. Digital agency, understood as the capacity to navigate, adapt to, and critically engage with digital technology, is central to both student and teacher empowerment in contemporary educational settings. Effective digital learning environments should not merely facilitate access to technology, but actively cultivate learner autonomy, self-regulation, and epistemic agency through structured pedagogical interventions.

For students, scaffolding techniques such as guided inquiry, formative assessment, and personalised learning pathways serve as crucial enablers of self-determined learning, fostering their capacity to learn (Goriss-Hunter et al., 2022). The integration of adaptive learning technologies, interactive digital tools, and multimodal resources allows students to exercise greater control over their learning experiences while engaging in self-directed exploration, problem-solving, and critical reflection (Engeness & Gamlem, 2025; Kimber et al., 2002). Moreover, digital learning environments that incorporate collaborative knowledge-building activities, such as peer review, co-creation, and participatory digital media production, further reinforce agency by positioning learners as active participants in the learning process rather than passive recipients of content (Singh & Engeness, 2021).

For educators, the cultivation of digital agency extends beyond the acquisition of technical proficiency to encompass critical engagement with digital pedagogy, ethical considerations, and reflective practice (Korhonen et al., 2024; Mouta et al., 2024). Effective professional development should prioritise the development of pedagogical adaptability, digital decision-making, and an awareness of the socio-cultural implications of technology use in education. This requires a shift from one-off training sessions towards sustained, collaborative professional learning communities where teachers can experiment with digital tools, share best practices, and engage in critical discourse on technology-enhanced pedagogy (Rasa et al., 2024; Stenalt et al., 2024).

A growing body of research suggests that teacher agency in digital learning environments is closely linked to perceptions of autonomy, professional identity, and institutional support (Kimber et al., 2002; Stenalt et al., 2024). Educators who perceive digital technology as a tool for pedagogical innovation and professional growth, rather than as an externally imposed mandate, demonstrate a greater willingness to experiment with digital teaching strategies and integrate technology in ways that align with their pedagogical values (Damşa et al., 2021; Gamlem et al., 2025). However, structural and organisational factors, such as institutional policies, leadership practices, and workload constraints, can significantly impact the ability of teachers to exercise agency in digital transformation efforts (Korhonen et al., 2024; Littlejohn, 2023).

One of the most effective strategies for fostering teacher agency is engagement in reflexive practice, wherein educators systematically analyse their teaching approaches, evaluate the effectiveness of digital interventions, and iteratively refine their strategies based on empirical evidence (Lantz-Andersson et al., 2022). Research highlights the value of using recorded teaching sessions, structured self-assessment frameworks, and collaborative discussions to enhance digital competence and promote pedagogical reflection (Novoa-Echaurren, 2024). Additionally, professional learning networks that facilitate knowledge exchange and mentorship opportunities further empower educators to develop digital confidence and instructional agility (Mouta et al., 2024; Stenalt et al., 2024).

Ultimately, enhancing digital agency among both students and educators requires a systemic commitment to embedding pedagogical, technological, and institutional support structures that encourage exploration, critical engagement, and self-determined learning. By fostering environments that prioritise autonomy, reflective practice, and professional collaboration, educational institutions can enable both learners and teachers to navigate and shape digital learning landscapes in meaningful and transformative ways.

6. The Special Issue

The contributions in this Special Issue collectively advance our understanding of agency in digital teaching and learning by examining its multifaceted manifestations across diverse educational contexts. The studies highlight how agency is conceptualised, operationalised, and nurtured, offering valuable insights for researchers, educators, and policymakers. Below, we synthesise the key themes and propose strategies to enhance agency, drawing on the empirical and theoretical work presented in this Special Issue.

6.1. Conceptualising Agency in Digital Environments

The studies in this Special Issue conceptualise agency as a dynamic, relational construct that emerges through interactions between individuals, digital tools, and socio-cultural contexts. Aravantinos et al. (Contribution 1) and Engeness et al. (Contribution 3) frame student agency as the capacity of learners to act autonomously, make informed choices, and critically engage with digital tools, while, e.g., Hollenstein et al. (Contribution 5) emphasise agency as the ability to explore, problem solve, and assert ownership over learning, particularly in playful or interactive digital settings. Meanwhile, teacher agency is explored as the ability of educators to adapt pedagogical strategies, critically evaluate digital tools, and shape institutional practices (Contribution 8; Contribution 11). Furthermore, it is demonstrated how professional development programmes can empower teachers to integrate technology flexibly, aligning with their pedagogical values (Contribution 2).

Theoretical frameworks such as Cultural–Historical, Cultural–Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) (Contribution 3; Contribution 8), and socio-material perspectives (Contribution 10) underscore agency as mediated by tools and shaped by systemic structures. These lenses reveal tensions such as the “tertiary contradiction” between e-textbooks and traditional teaching roles (Contribution 8), while also highlighting opportunities for transformative engagement.

6.2. Strategies to Enhance Agency

These studies collectively identify several strategies for fostering agency in digital learning environments. Active learning approaches such as project-based learning (Contribution 1) and inquiry-based tasks (Contribution 11) position students as co-creators of knowledge. For instance, Aagaard et al. (Contribution 11) show how simulated parent–teacher conferences encourage critical reflection and problem solving among student teachers. Scaffolded autonomy, which balances structured guidance with opportunities for self-direction, is another key strategy, as seen in AI chatbot-supported MOOCs (Contribution 3) and customised digital portfolios (Contribution 7).

Supporting teacher agency requires professional learning communities that foster collaborative reflection and mentorship, as demonstrated in Kenyan teacher training (Contribution 2) and in simulations in Norwegian teacher education (Contribution 11). Institutional empowerment is also critical, as addressing systemic barriers—such as policy gaps and workload constraints—enables teachers to innovate (Contribution 4; Contribution 8). Ethical and inclusive design further enhances agency, with tools like the artificial intelligence machine learning system (AI-MLS) (Contribution 9) and #BookTok (Contribution 6) illustrating how technology can amplify marginalised voices while mitigating biases. Ensuring equitable access to digital resources remains a priority (Contribution 4).

6.3. Contributions of the Special Issue

This Special Issue makes three key contributions to the field. First, it advances theoretical frameworks like Cultural–Historical, CHAT, and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) by integrating agency as a central component of digital learning. The empirical studies provide robust evidence for these theoretical extensions across diverse educational settings.

Second, it provides empirical evidence of how agency can be fostered through pedagogical innovation, professional development, and institutional support, confirming the core principles from Siddiq et al. (2024) while offering new, context-specific implementations from primary to higher education across multiple continents.

Finally, it highlights the importance of equity and ethical considerations in designing digital learning environments that empower all participants, taking forward and operationalising ethical frameworks. The focus on marginalised voices through tools like #BookTok (Contribution 6) and adaptive technologies for learners with disabilities (Contribution 7) represents particularly significant extensions of prior equity-focused research.

In conclusion, the studies in this Special Issue collectively underscore the transformative potential of agency in digital education while demonstrating how contemporary research both confirms foundational findings and pushes theoretical and practical boundaries. By fostering environments that prioritise autonomy, critical engagement, and collaborative learning, educators and institutions can empower both students and teachers to navigate and shape digital learning landscapes in meaningful ways. Future research should continue to explore the interplay between agency, technology, and pedagogy, ensuring that digital education remains inclusive, adaptive, and empowering for all learners while building upon the robust foundations established in this Special Issue.