Influence of School Culture and Organizational Culture on Conflicts: Case of Serbian Primary Schools

Abstract

This paper explores how school culture and key organizational culture dimensions, power distance, humane orientation, performance orientation, and in-group collectivism, affect different types of conflict (task, relationship, and process) in primary schools in Serbia. It also examines how gender and teachers’ organizational commitment moderate these relationships. Data were obtained by surveying 380 respondents, all of whom were primary school teachers in Serbia. The participants were between 23 and 65 years old. Of the total sample, 19.47% were male, and 80.53% were female. The mean values ranged from 1.8046 to 4.9847, with standard deviations between 0.7699 and 1.4785. The research was conducted using a simple random sampling technique. Teachers were given questionnaires through Google Forms, which they completed online. Printed versions were also distributed and later entered into the database. The study was guided by two research questions and two hypotheses. Data analysis was performed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). The findings reveal that the school culture dimension of teacher professionalism and goal setting (r = −0.297 **; β = −0.496) and the organizational culture dimension of humane orientation (r = −0.303 **; β = −0.198) have the most substantial negative effects on conflict, indicating their beneficial role in reducing it. In contrast, power distance shows a strong positive relationship with conflict, particularly with relationship conflict (r = 0.230 **; β = 0.201). Additionally, excessive emphasis on teacher collaboration and performance orientation appears to increase relationship conflict (β = 0.226; β = 0.261, respectively). Gender differences emerged: cultural dimensions were more effective in reducing conflict among women than men. Among male teachers, power distance had a stronger influence, significantly increasing task conflict (r = 0.303 **). The school culture and organizational culture dimensions significantly reduce the conflict dimensions in the case of high teacher commitment. The dimension power distance has a statistically significant and positive effect on conflicts when organizational commitment is high (r = 0.247 **). Therefore, school culture and organizational culture dimensions achieve stronger effects in committed women, while power distance achieves stronger effects in committed men.

1. Introduction

School is an institution, a social system, and a learning organization, in which didactic, educational, and social situations are defined as interactions regarding the transfer of information, checking the degree of the acquired knowledge, rewards and punishments, and management of the behavior of an individual, a group, or a team (Górka-Strzałkowska, 2018). Social situations are, above all, cooperation, competition, or conflict. When antagonism in attitudes leads to passive or active disagreement in some social environment, we speak of conflict. Conflicts will always accompany humanity, as people and social groups constantly interact with each other; therefore, to prevent and resolve conflict situations, it is necessary to study conflictogenic factors, causes, and conflict management methods (Omelaenko, 2021). Conflicts are a natural thing; they can appear anywhere, in any organization, including schools, wherever there is a community of people who are gathered around some mutual work. Conflict is a natural part of life, and it is also a part of school life. As a social phenomenon, it occurs between individuals, groups, organizations, and nations (Rubin, 1994) and is an inseparable part of human, social, and school life. It is understood as a situation or process that occurs when an individual or group feels that others are interfering with their interests (Wall & Callister, 1995).

It is natural for people to have different views on the same topic, different approaches, and different methods of solving problems. The goals may be the same, but the paths to the solution may be different. Conflict is inevitable in all organizations, including learning institutions (Machingambi & Dzimiri, 2024). Therefore, it is clear that even schools cannot be an exception to the occurrence of conflict. However, conflicts in educational institutions represent a significant challenge for the effective functioning and development of schools (Valente et al., 2022) and are attributed to differences or disagreements in attitudes and perceptions, needs and values, and tasks and policies that appear as differences arising from competition, mistakes or ignorance, or negative behavior and reactions of organizational members (Kantek & Gezer, 2009; Rahim, 2002).

The existence of conflict in schools is a present and seemingly inevitable phenomenon and can appear between students, school leaders, and/or teachers, as well as between the school itself and other social parties in the school, such as local authorities or parents (Henkin & Holliman, 2009). The subsystems (teachers and students) belonging to the social school system are relatively independent, but their goals include many contradictory elements. For example, grades play an essential role in students’ learning activities, affect their relationships with teachers, parents, classmates, and the formation of their self-concept, and often cause many conflicts (Revenko et al., 2023). In spite of this, such situations are solvable, and very often, they are the driving force in the further development of the school (Górka-Strzałkowska, 2018).

Conflicts between teachers most often occur due to poor communication or a complete lack of communication, certain personal interests, previous conflicts, influence or power, political and ideological differences, and organizational reasons (Göksoy & Argon, 2016). Negative impacts include discomfort, insecurity, lack of motivation, resentment, frustration, and stress among teachers, which can threaten relationships and the educational process and lead to a decrease in the quality of education (Rahim, 2010; Balay, 2007). Conflicts in school are differences in opinions (inability to reach consensus, disagreements, different ideas, etc.) and negative situations (forming a group with like-minded people, non-conformism, harming others, questioning identity, conflicts and prejudices, etc.) (Göksoy & Argon, 2016).

The role of awareness of differences is also important. Teachers who understand cultural frameworks as a factor in the regulation of the student population are more adept at managing conflicts that may arise due to cultural differences. Integrating cultural competencies into conflict resolution training empowers teachers and administrators to anticipate and mitigate disputes arising from cultural misunderstandings (Mansur et al., 2024). According to Chuang et al. (2004), organizational culture has a direct impact on intragroup conflict, and there is a moderation between group diversity and intragroup conflict.

However, as claimed by Rai and Singh (2021), conflicts in schools not only have negative sides but can also have positive ones. The positive sides of conflicts are reflected in the inspiration for innovation and creative strategies in solving problems, improving work and results, and encouraging the school to achieve a higher level of quality (Valente et al., 2022; Göksoy & Argon, 2016; Trudel & Reio, 2011). Positive individual effects emerge as an increase in productivity, resolving misunderstandings, realizing different ideas, learning to listen, learning to respect different thoughts, ending resentment and tension between parties, gaining a different perspective, and learning the communication styles of each other, whereas positive organizational effects are the emergence of new ideas, development of leadership roles, increased school dynamism, achieving the best ideas, increased democratization, and the detailed consultation of events or situations (Ertürk, 2022). In contemporary society, the continuous deepening of educational reforms has introduced a human orientation and a person-centered approach that emphasizes respect for individual subjectivity and focuses on fostering holistic and personalized development (Li, 2024). Genç (2005) stated that the problems that exist but are hidden are exposed through conflict and that when these problems can be discussed, organizational communication develops, and original ideas emerge.

Constructive and creative conflict management is essential to accomplish the educational, administrative, and organizational goals of schools (Balay, 2007). Strategic management of conflicts is necessary, and this is also visible at the legislative level. For example, the law that deals with the fundaments of education in the Republic of Serbia Zakon o osnovama vaspitanja i obrazovanja (2025) (Law on the Fundamentals of the Education System), as one of the expected outcomes of education, expects the student’s ability to effectively and constructively participate in all forms of work and social life, respect human rights and freedoms, and communicate assertively and non-violently, especially in the growing diversity of societies and conflict resolution from Zakon o osnovama vaspitanja i obrazovanja (2025) (Law on the Fundamentals of the Education System).

Therefore, conflict is a natural human characteristic and is common in human society. Teachers may be involved in conflicts with students, their parents, and colleagues (Obraztsova, 2018). It is experienced as a result of disagreement and inconsistency during interpersonal interactions (Rahim, 1983). The question arises whether conflict in school is solely the result of interpersonal relations and professional disagreements or can be attributed to a school’s culture and organizational reasons.

School culture includes values, norms, attitudes, and behaviors that are formed in school (V. Çelik, 2010), while organizational culture is defined as “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that was learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel about those problems” (Schein, 2004, p. 17). There are claims that school culture and organizational culture play a key role in shaping relationships between employees, students, and parents and in preventing or escalating conflicts (Haryaka, 2021). In combination, these two cultures can significantly influence the occurrence and form of conflicts, whether they are related to teaching, school management, or relations between employees (Haryaka, 2021).

The impact of school culture on conflict in educational institutions is a significant area of study that explores the complex interactions between values, beliefs, and phenomena in the school ecosystem. School organization is also a factor that affects teacher satisfaction (Beltrán-Martín et al., 2022). Organizational structures, the particular nature of jobs or workplaces, and social relationships in schools support teachers’ activities and roles (Martínez-León et al., 2024). The term “good school” is a generally accepted term for a school with a good organizational culture (Glušac et al., 2015).

The research question from which the research was born is how school and organizational culture manifest themselves in everyday life in school, and to what extent they can be a factor that initiates or resolves conflicts between different actors in the educational process. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the influence of school and organizational culture on the occurrence and nature of conflicts in elementary schools in the Republic of Serbia. Understanding the connection of these variables to conflicts allows insight into how internal values, normative frameworks, and work organization can shape interpersonal relationships in schools. In addition, the paper examines the moderating effects of teachers’ gender and organizational commitment, which should shed additional light on the nature of the observed relationships. The results of the research are discussed, and recommendations are given for the principals of elementary schools on how the shaping of school culture and organizational culture can reduce conflict in schools.

2. Theory and Hypotheses

2.1. School Culture and Conflicts

A school is an institution where educational work takes place, which is based on the concept of orientation towards people and emphasizes respect for individual differences and commitment to holistic development and nurturing of personal growth (Li, 2024). This approach is reflected in a humane approach to students, addressing their individual needs and providing them with an appropriate environment for learning and growth. This approach enables, implies, and seeks the professional development of the teacher by offering them a stimulating work environment for working with children. The humanistically oriented concept of the institution set in this way brings expectations on all of the subjects that participate in it. These informal expectations shape the way people think, feel, and act in schools. Those expectations define the underground stream of norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and rituals that have built up over time as people work together, solve problems, and confront challenges, which is called school culture (Peterson & Deal, 1998). School culture is a complex network of values and beliefs, norms, social and power relations, and emotions (Stol, 1998). It includes shared norms and values that shape interactions among students, teachers, and administrators.

To what extent can the features of school culture influence other aspects of a school? Saphier and King (1985) believe that “if certain norms of school culture are strong, improvements in instruction will be significant, sustainable, and widespread in classrooms”. Through their research, Saphier and King identified twelve norms of school culture that contribute to teacher change. Consistent, significant, and sustainable school improvement depends on improvements in 12 aspects of school culture: collegiality; experimentation; high expectations; trust and confidence; broad support; awareness of new knowledge; respect and recognition; caring, celebration, and humor; participatory decision-making; protection of vital interests; tradition; and honest, open communication. Saphier and King single out the following as dominant dimensions: teacher professionalism and goal setting (10 items), professional treatment by administration (8 items), and teacher collaboration (6 items).

Perceptions of school culture have been associated with teachers’ instructional practices and personal teaching efficacy (Deemer, 2004). Teacher professionalism is characterized by traits and professional qualifications such as “being good at one’s job”, “meeting the highest standards,” and “achieving excellence” (Demirkasımoğlu, 2010). Professional behavior and goal orientation are expected from teachers, which Barber (1965) explains through four main characteristics: (a) a high degree of generalized and systematic knowledge, (b) orientation primarily to the interest of the community and not to individual interest, (c) a high degree of self-control of behavior through ethical codes in the process of work socialization, and (d) a reward system that is primarily seen as a symbol of work achievement.

A people-centered approach emphasizes respect for individual subjectivity and focuses on nurturing holistic and personalized development, providing key theoretical guidelines for the innovation of instructional management models in primary education (Li, 2024). As such, it has consequences on the outcomes of educational activities for students.

Furthermore, the tasks, values, goals, and/or norms embedded in a school’s culture can influence how conflicts are perceived and handled (Kabanoff, 1985; Rahim, 2010; Tjosvold, 1998; Van de Vliert, 1998). Conflicts often arise from personal dynamics shaped by differing values and beliefs among students and staff. This is illustrated in the work of Saiti, which argues that a strong school culture that promotes respect and understanding among all members can mitigate the intensity and frequency of conflicts (Saiti, 2015). Additionally, Çelik and Tosun provide evidence that school administrators utilizing integrative conflict management styles correlate positively with organizational health, indicating that administrators should cultivate a culture that nurtures healthy interpersonal relationships (K. Çelik & Tosun, 2019).

If there is a difference in goals, the interdependence of the work of individuals, or a high level of misunderstanding, the potential for conflict is greater (Tjosvold & Hui, 2001; Tjosvold & Fang, 2004). In addition, schools that prioritize mutual respect, empathy, and collaboration are more likely to approach conflicts constructively. In these settings, conflicts are viewed as opportunities for growth, and interventions focus on promoting understanding and cooperation. In contrast, schools with a culture that emphasizes competition, individualism, or rigid adherence to authority may perceive conflicts as disruptive and undesirable, often leading to punitive responses or avoidance. Such cultures can exacerbate tensions and create an atmosphere where conflicts are not openly discussed or resolved, thereby hindering the potential for positive change.

One critical aspect of school culture that influences conflict dynamics is the way it shapes communication and collaboration among teaching staff. According to Arokiasamy (2017), emphasizing the importance of a collaborative culture, he argues that schools in which teachers participate in teamwork and share decision-making responsibilities tend to achieve better results. This collaborative ethos fosters a positive environment and acts as a preventative measure against conflict by promoting open communication and collective problem-solving among individuals (Arokiasamy, 2017). Research (Larasati & Raharja, 2020) further supports this by illustrating that effective conflict management, moderated by a positive school culture, can improve school organizational performance and contribution.

Moreover, cultural awareness and sensitivity play vital roles in conflict occurrences in diverse school settings. Teaching staff who understand and appreciate the various cultural backgrounds of their students are better positioned to recognize and adapt to potential conflicts stemming from cultural misunderstandings (Mercado & Trumbull, 2018). By mentoring teachers in culturally responsive strategies, schools can minimize conflicts and foster a more inclusive atmosphere (Mercado & Trumbull, 2018). This aligns with findings from Ali et al., who emphasize that a strong, positive school culture correlates with enhanced effectiveness and is instrumental in resolving conflicts through shared values (Ali et al., 2016).

In summary, the influence of school culture on conflicts is multidimensional, involving aspects of communication, leadership, cultural awareness, and interpersonal relationships. Schools that foster a collaborative, respectful, and inclusive culture are better equipped to manage conflicts effectively, thereby enhancing overall school effectiveness. By actively promoting a positive culture, educational institutions can transform potential conflict situations into opportunities for growth and collaboration among all stakeholders involved.

2.2. Organizational Culture and Conflicts

Organizational culture is a pattern of assumptions developed by an organization to solve its internal and external adaptation problems, and it is adopted by group members as valid when similar situations arise (Çakır & Özgenel, 2024). The impact of organizational culture on conflict in schools is a complex subject that interweaves different aspects of leadership, communication, and community dynamics. One of the main ways in which organizational culture affects conflicts in elementary schools is through the communication patterns it fosters. Effective communication lays the foundation for a healthy organizational culture (Mikkelson & Hesse, 2023). Research (Üstüner & Kis, 2014) indicates a correlation between communication competence and conflict management within educational institutions. It is considered that organizational culture has a direct impact on the dissemination of information, participation in communication processes, and the climate of the organization (Susita et al., 2020). When educators possess strong communication skills, they are better equipped to address the misunderstandings and misinterpretations that often lead to conflict. This is critical in different educational institutions where different cultural backgrounds contribute to different perceptions of conflict (Astuti et al., 2024). A school with an open, collaborative, and inclusive culture ensures open communication where a smooth flow of information occurs at all hierarchical levels (Mikkelson & Hesse, 2023; Thelen & Formanchuk, 2022). Such a culture enables early identification of potential conflicts and encourages timely resolution of misunderstandings before they escalate. On the other hand, a hierarchical or closed organizational culture, characterized by top-down communication and limited feedback, can contribute to misunderstandings and frustrations (Thelen & Formanchuk, 2022; Tourish & Robson, 2006).

Power distance is important for healthy relationships, interactions, and communication between managers and employees. Power distance, as described by Hofstede et al. (2010), is a valuable concept in understanding how individuals connect and establish a sense of belonging, as it reflects the unequal distribution of social power within societies. Low power distance improves the quality of relationships, interactions, and communication between school administrators and teachers, while high power distance reduces it. The power distance that teachers believe exists in a school can be related to their organizational attitude, values, and behavior (Uzun, 2020). Leaders who model inclusive, participatory, and democratic behaviors can foster a culture of openness and problem-solving, where conflicts are viewed as part of the normal functioning of the organization. These leaders are more likely to encourage dialogue, involve stakeholders in decision-making, and promote conflict resolution strategies that prioritize collaboration. Such leadership practices not only increase the likelihood of conflict but also diminish the potential for effective conflict resolution. On the other hand, in organizations where there are hierarchical structures in place and there are rigid positions of leaders and subordinates, authoritarian leaders who exhibit controlling or dismissive behaviors can contribute to a culture of fear and mistrust, where conflicts are either suppressed or handled in a rigid, unyielding manner. In such organizations, subordinates are seen as dependent on their bosses. In these cases, there is a high power distance index (PDI).

The leadership style within a primary school is another critical factor in how organizational culture impacts conflict. School leaders have a kind of power in their hands that has significant effects on employees’ attitudes and behaviors, such as morale, motivation, loyalty, trust, organizational citizenship, job satisfaction, job stress, alienation from work and organization, and organizational silence (Aslan, 2022). According to Lukman (2024), principals who adopt a collaborative leadership style tend to use integration strategies that involve all parties in conflict resolution. This approach not only leads to satisfactory outcomes but also fosters a culture of cooperation and mutual respect among staff members, thus reducing the occurrence of conflicts (Zaitoun et al., 2023; Lukman, 2024). On the other hand, an avoidant leadership approach can exacerbate conflict situations, as these principals may neglect to face underlying problems, perpetuating a cycle of unresolved problems (Di Pietro & Di Virgilio, 2013). Consequently, the leadership approach profoundly affects the effectiveness of the organizational culture in conflict resolution.

2.3. Organizational Commitment and Conflicts in Schools

One of the frequent statements heard from teachers is that they “love their job”. In the middle of the 20th century, there was a general opinion that teachers were happy to go to school, they were committed to the achievement of the goals and tasks before them, and they were motivated to do more than what was their formal obligation (Steers, 1977). They consider their work to be humane, and they overcome all difficulties in their work because of a higher goal and commitment to students and education. They love their school, and they are innovative because they want to ensure their school’s success and rating. Such a trait is called commitment to the organization.

Organizational commitment is the individual’s psychological attachment to their organization (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986). Organizational commitment has been defined as the strength of an individual’s identification and involvement with an organization, evidenced by a desire to stay with, exert effort for, and believe in the goals of the organization (De Nobile & Bilgin, 2022). Teacher commitment, broadly defined as loyalty to the school organization, is viewed as a primary cultural characteristic in normative organizations. Organizational commitment appears to be enhanced when the organizational culture emphasizes a normative orientation.

Johnson et al. (2024) reached findings that underscore the need for multifaceted interventions to improve school belonging. This includes enhancing teacher support, fostering a cooperative school environment, mitigating bullying, and advocating for equitable education policies with full consideration of context-specific implications. Teacher commitment is believed to be central to school effectiveness and feeling that they are part of the in-group. This notion is based on arguments claiming that student achievement is intertwined with teachers’ commitment to their work, their school, and their students (Firestone & Rosenblum, 1988; Metz, 1988; Karadağ et al., 2011; Choudhury & Chechi, 2021). Karadağ et al. (2011) in their research came to the result that indicates that there were statistically meaningful relationships between two dimensions of organizational commitment (affective and normative commitment to school) and school culture.

However, high standards stemming from numerous interactions and commitments can create a chance for conflict. From commitment and conflict points of view, it was observed that educational organizations are extremely vulnerable to conflict due to the stresses of the environment, the nature of the work, and the diversity of interactions, members, and tasks (Balay, 2007).

2.4. Hypotheses and Research Questions

Taking into an account the above, the construction of the research question follows: are there significant correlations between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions (both independent variables) and conflict dimensions (dependent variables), as well as is there a significant predictive effect of the school culture and organizational culture dimensions on the conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools? Are the teachers’ gender and their organizational commitment moderators of the relationship between school culture and dimensions of organizational culture and dimensions of conflicts in primary schools in Serbia?

Based on previous considerations and the posed research question, as well as the operationalization of dimensions and moderators, two hypotheses are created in the paper:

H1. 

There is a statistically significant correlation between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools.

H2. 

There is a statistically significant predictive effect of the school culture and organizational culture dimensions on the conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools.

The paper examines the moderating effect of two moderators on the observed relationships. The research questions are as follows:

RQ1:

Is there a moderating effect of the teachers’ gender on the relations between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools?

RQ2:

Is there a moderating effect of the teachers’ organizational commitment on the relations between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools?

3. Method

3.1. Procedure

The research was carried out in Serbian primary schools. Respondents were teachers in primary schools. The research was carried out by respondents completing questionnaires. One part of the questionnaire was collected electronically by teachers filling out the questionnaire via Google Forms. The second part of the questionnaire was filled out in paper form after direct conversations between the authors of the paper and the respondents. These took place in schools, after the teachers’ classes. The third part of the questionnaires was also filled out physically by leaving the questionnaires for the teachers to fill in when they had time, and the questionnaires were picked up later (this was applied in cases of the authors’ and the school’s proximity).

The research lasted for about four months. All respondents were anonymous (they did not enter personal data). The survey included 84 schools. A total of 380 valid questionnaires were collected. At the same time, 17 questionnaires were discarded due to incomplete answers.

There were 74 men (19.5%) and 306 women (80.5%) in the sample. In primary schools in Serbia, it is common for women to make up a significant majority of teachers. In primary schools in the Republic of Serbia at the beginning of the 2024/2025 school year, there was a total of 31,522 teachers employed: 18% male and 82% female (Republički zavod za statistiku, Republika Srbija).

According to the moderator, organizational commitment, the sample of 380 respondents was divided by the median (4000). In the group of low teachers’ organizational commitment (Low OCM < 4000), there were N_LOCM = 189 respondents (49.7%), while in the group of high teachers’ organizational commitment (High OCM ≥ 4000), there were N_HOCM = 191 respondents (50.3%).

3.2. Survey Instruments (Measures)

The School Culture Survey (SCS) (Saphier & King, 1985; as modified by Edwards et al., 1996) was used as an instrument for measuring school culture. The survey comprises three dimensions, containing 24 items, using a seven-point Likert scale. The dimensions are teacher professionalism and goal setting (10 items), professional treatment by administration (8 items), and teacher collaboration (6 items).

The GLOBE project was used (House et al., 1999, 2002, 2004) as an instrument for measuring organizational culture. The first part of the questionnaire for the measurement of organizational culture was used (the state “how it is”). This questionnaire comprises 34 items with a seven-point Likert scale. The completed questionnaires were processed according to GLOBE Syntax. The instrument measures nine dimensions of organizational culture, and in this research, four dimensions were used: power distance, humane orientation, performance orientation, and in-group collectivism (Collectivism 2).

The questionnaire for measuring the conflict of tasks, relationships, and processes is defined on the basis of the Extended Intragroup Conflict Scale (Jehn et al., 2008). In previous research, Jehn (1995) developed the dimensions of task conflict and relationship conflict, and in later work, a third dimension was inserted, process conflict (Jehn et al., 2008). The scale consists of 14 items, using a five-point Likert scale.

Organizational commitment was measured through an instrument established by Cook and Wall (1980). The instrument has nine items and three dimensions: organizational identification, organizational involvement, and organizational loyalty of employees. The respondents evaluated each item on a five-point Likert scale. In this paper, organizational commitment is considered a moderator and one dimension.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

The results of descriptive statistics for school culture, organizational culture, conflicts, and organizational commitment dimensions are shown in

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

Dimensions	Abbr.	N	Min.	Max.	Mean	SD	Cron. Alpha
Teacher professionalism and goal setting	TPG	380	1.000	7.000	4.98474	1.438916	0.967
Professional treatment by administration	PTA	380	1.000	7.000	4.75296	1.478529	0.951
Teacher collaboration	TCO	380	1.167	7.000	4.83947	1.373928	0.919
Power distance	PD	380	1.000	7.000	3.99561	1.327266	0.730
Humane orientation	HO	380	1.000	7.000	4.95439	1.340666	0.910
Performance orientation	PO	380	1.000	7.000	4.22039	1.338347	0.825
In-group collectivism (Collectivism 2)	GC	380	1.600	7.000	4.91789	1.314420	0.903
Task conflict	CT	380	1.000	5.000	2.20614	0.897841	0.906
Relationship conflict	CR	380	1.000	5.000	1.80461	0.769949	0.794
Process conflict	CP	380	1.000	5.000	2.17303	1.011394	0.939
Conflict	C	380	1.000	5.000	2.08195	0.810465	0.945
Organizational commitment	OCM	380	1.444	5.000	3.87982	0.809172	0.874

. In this table, the names, abbreviations, means, standard deviations, and Cronbach’s alpha for each dimension are given. Conflicts are observed according to individual dimensions but also as one dimension (higher-order construct). Cronbach’s alpha values range from 0.730 to 0.967.

4.2. Correlation Analysis

Coefficients of correlation between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools are in

Table 2. Coefficients of correlation.

	CT	CR	CP	C
TPG	−0.288 **	−0.186 **	−0.306 **	−0.297 **
PTA	−0.245 **	−0.155 **	−0.263 **	−0.252 **
TCO	−0.200 **	−0.074	−0.212 **	−0.191 **
PD	0.143 **	0.230 **	0.133 **	0.178 **
HO	−0.294 **	−0.218 **	−0.293 **	−0.303 **
PO	−0.232 **	−0.082	−0.254 **	−0.223 **
GC	−0.235 **	−0.163 **	−0.299 **	−0.263 **

* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.

. Pearson’s correlation was used(* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01).

Most of the results in Table 2 show statistically significant and negative correlations, namely, ** p < 0.01. The humane orientation, teacher professionalism, and goal-setting dimensions achieve a particularly strong reduction in conflicts.

4.3. Regression Analysis

The predictive effect of the school culture and organizational culture dimensions (independent variables) on the conflict dimensions (dependent variables) was examined using Multiple Regression analysis (

Table 3. Regression analysis.

				Indep.
Depend.	TPG	PTA	TCO	PD	HO	PO	GC	R2	F	Sig.
				Β
CT	−0.491	0.203	0.100	0.103	−0.204	−0.019	0.123	0.122	7.357	0.000
CR	−0.407	0.012	0.226	0.201	−0.212	0.261	−0.013	0.130	7.956	0.000
CP	−0.428	0.199	0.104	0.083	−0.122	0.022	−0.089	0.125	7.561	0.000
C	−0.496	0.171	0.146	0.133	−0.198	0.070	0.023	0.138	8.521	0.000

). The results with a statistically significant predictive effect are marked with bold font and shaded fields.

Following the results of the correlation analysis, the regression analysis (Table 2) shows that the dimensions humane orientation, teacher professionalism, and goal setting have the most favorable effects on the conflict dimensions, with the effect of the teacher professionalism and goal-setting dimensions now being more emphasized. Also, it is observed that the power distance dimension increases conflicts.

4.4. Gender as a Moderator of the Observed Relations

Examination of the moderating effect of teachers’ gender was carried out using hierarchical regression analysis. The results of the correlation analysis between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions, especially for males and females, are given in

Table 4. Correlation coefficients between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions in relation to males and females.

Gender		CT	CR	CP	C
Males NM = 74	TPG	−0.164	−0.035	−0.238 *	−0.161
	PTA	−0.119	−0.010	−0.182	−0.116
	TCO	0.029	0.117	−0.056	0.031
	PD	0.303 **	0.252 *	0.239 *	0.291 *
	HO	−0.189	−0.027	−0.146	−0.141
	PO	0.008	0.136	−0.006	0.043
	GC	−0.074	0.001	−0.153	−0.082
Females NF = 306	TPG	−0.326 **	−0.248 **	−0.325 **	−0.341 **
	PTA	−0.283 **	−0.213 **	−0.285 **	−0.297 **
	TCO	−0.260 **	−0.138 *	−0.248 **	−0.253 **
	PD	0.095	0.218 **	0.103	0.140 *
	HO	−0.331 **	−0.301 **	−0.333 **	−0.361 **
	PO	−0.300 **	−0.164 **	−0.316 **	−0.304 **
	GC	−0.280 **	−0.222 **	−0.336 **	−0.317 **

* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.

(the results, where the moderating effect was confirmed, are marked with shaded fields).

The results in Table 4 show that the dimensions of teacher collaboration and performance orientation have a stronger effect on conflicts in the case of female teachers. This influence is negative, so it can be said that these two dimensions reduce conflicts among women to a greater extent. In addition, the power distance dimension more strongly enhances task conflict in men.

4.5. Organizational Commitment as a Moderator of the Observed Relations

Examination of the moderating effect of organizational commitment was carried out using hierarchical regression analysis. The results of the correlation analysis between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions, especially for low and high teachers’ organizational commitment, are given in

Table 5. Correlation coefficients between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions and conflict dimensions in relation to low and high teachers’ organizational commitment.

Organizational Commitment		CT	CR	CP	C
Low teachers’ organizational commitment NLOCM = 189	TPG	−0.141	−0.133	−0.154 *	−0.163 *
	PTA	−0.070	−0.067	−0.090	−0.086
	TCO	−0.093	0.002	−0.072	−0.073
	PD	0.066	0.139	0.037	0.084
	HO	−0.213 **	−0.248 **	−0.190 **	−0.242 **
	PO	−0.075	−0.012	−0.119	−0.084
	GC	−0.051	−0.093	−0.145 *	−0.104
High teachers’ organizational commitment NHOCM = 191	TPG	−0.319 **	−0.222 **	−0.317 **	−0.317 **
	PTA	−0.292 **	−0.213 **	−0.280 **	−0.289 **
	TCO	−0.175 *	−0.104	−0.187 **	−0.173 *
	PD	0.205 **	0.288 **	0.209 **	0.247 **
	HO	−0.289 **	−0.187 **	−0.289 **	−0.283 **
	PO	−0.247 **	−0.101	−0.227 **	−0.219 **
	GC	−0.278 **	−0.205 **	−0.302 **	−0.288 **

* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.

(results, where the moderating effect was confirmed, are marked with shaded fields).

The results in Table 5 show that in a certain number of cases, independent variables reduce conflicts more strongly in the case of high teachers’ organizational commitment.

5. Discussion

5.1. Discussion of Correlation Analysis Results (Testing Hypothesis H1)

The results in Table 2 show that, with two exceptions, all other correlations are statistically significant. So, the school culture and organizational culture dimensions have a statistically significant influence on conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools. In this way, hypothesis H1 is confirmed.

It is immediately noticeable that all impacts are negative, except for the impact achieved by the dimension PD (power distance). Power distance contributes to the increase in conflict in schools. This result can be considered expected, given that high power distance has the potential to create a negative atmosphere in organizations, which then easily manifests itself through conflicts. Power distance has the greatest influence on the dimension CR (relationship conflict, r = 0.230 **), which means that a high power distance has an extremely unfavorable effect on interpersonal relationships and favors the development of conflicts among teachers, which are not only related to work. Such results can be accepted as analogous to the findings of previous research regarding the effect of power distance in schools (Uzun, 2020; Thelen & Formanchuk, 2022; Tourish & Robson, 2006).

All other independent variables act to reduce conflicts, which can also be accepted as an expected result. The dimension HO (humane orientation) has the most favorable effect on conflicts (correlation with the conflict dimension r = −0.303 **). Cultivating a culture that favors consideration and feeling for others certainly contributes to reducing conflicts. Similarly, some research (Tjosvold & Hui, 2001; Tjosvold & Fang, 2004) shows that the presence of respect and empathy among school employees has a constructive effect on conflicts. The next dimension that significantly mitigates conflicts is TPG (teacher professionalism) and goal setting (correlation with the conflict dimension r = −0.303 **). Useful and productive meetings, open communication with respect, encouragement to express ideas, a clear mission, and goals of the school are just some elements of this school culture dimension that will have a favorable effect on conflicts. Similar findings regarding the effect of school culture on conflicts were discovered in other studies (Saiti, 2015; K. Çelik & Tosun, 2019).

In reducing conflicts, the dimension GC (in-group collectivism) stands out (correlation with the conflict dimension r = −0.263 **). The connection between teachers, pride in what they do for their school, pride in the achievements of their colleagues, and the school’s loyalty to teachers are all elements that contribute to neutralizing conflicts in the school. This result is consistent with some existing research, which has shown that open collaboration and communication contribute to resolving potential conflicts (Mikkelson & Hesse, 2023; Thelen & Formanchuk, 2022; Arokiasamy, 2017).

Among the conflict dimensions, the one most influenced by independent variables is the dimension CP (process conflict). The dimensions of school culture and organizational culture, at the individual level (correlation analysis), have a strong effect on business processes and the distribution of responsibilities and work obligations, as well as the way work is performed. After all, the school is a workplace for teachers, and the mentioned processes must take place conscientiously, with quality, and promptly, with mutual understanding and respect. It is a necessary basis for good relations on a personal level as well. The dimensions of CT (task conflict) and especially CR (relationship conflict) are more personal and less organizational, so the individual influence of independent variables is somewhat weaker in this case.

5.2. Discussion of Regression Analysis Results (Testing Hypothesis H2)

According to Table 3, out of all school culture and organizational culture dimensions, the strongest statistically significant and negative effect is the dimension TPG (teacher professionalism and goal setting) (effect on the conflict dimension β = −0.496), followed by the dimension HO (humane orientation) (effect on the conflict dimension β = −0.198), which follows the results of the correlation analysis, with only the ranking of the strength of the effect reversed for these two independent variables. However, in the regression analysis, the statistically significant predictive effect of the dimension GC (in-group collectivism) was missing: as part of the action of a larger number of independent variables, this dimension loses its influence. The dimension PD (power distance) maintains a positive effect on conflict dimensions, especially on the dimension CR (relationship conflict) (β = 0.201), which is consistent with the results of correlation analysis.

In addition to the above, the regression analysis shows two interesting and perhaps unexpected results: the statistically significant and positive predictive effects of the dimensions TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation) on CR (relationship conflict) (β = 0.226; β = 0.261, respectively). Both results refer to the only two relationships that did not have a statistically significant correlation (Table 2). Thus, it can be said that these results are not opposite to the correlation analysis.

In the regression analysis, due to the effect of a large number of independent variables, the predictive effect of the dimension TCO (teacher collaboration) on the dimension CR (relationship conflict) was manifested as statistically significant and positive. Teacher collaboration implies that teachers talk concretely about issues related to teaching, make constructive observations about each other, prepare teaching materials together, and help and teach each other about teaching issues. All this, in certain circumstances, can be understood as an imposed obligation and persistent forcing of cooperation and understanding, as well as being reduced to insincerity, excessive imposition of one’s ideas, negative competition, and competition among teachers. In addition, many teachers highly value individuality in the preparation and implementation of lessons and firmly believe in their methods. All this can worsen relations between teachers to the extent that relationship conflict occurs.

A similar situation occurs with the predictive effect of the dimension PO (performance orientation) on the dimension CR (relationship conflict), which is also statistically significant and positive. A strong performance orientation implies high expectations from superiors, which can easily turn into significant pressure on teachers, and all of this forms a good basis for conflicts, especially if the results are not at the desired level. In such circumstances, interpersonal relationships are particularly threatened, and relationship conflict occurs. This result for the performance orientation dimension is consistent with the results obtained in other research (Power et al., 2013; Porter et al., 2018; Stankov et al., 2022).

According to Table 3, the values of the corrected determination indices R² range from 0.122 to 0.138 and are all statistically significant. Based on the previous statement, hypothesis H2 is confirmed. There is a slightly stronger predictive effect on the dimension CR (relationship conflict), which represents a certain difference compared to the results of the correlation analysis, where this dimension was under the least influence. As described, in the regression analysis, due to the simultaneous effect of the observed independent variables, the positive effects of TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation) on CR (relationship conflict) come to the fore, which led to the strengthening of the effects on relationship conflict.

5.3. Discussion of the Moderating Effects of Gender (Answering the Research Question RQ1)

The research questions that preceded the research were as follows: are there significant correlations between the school culture and organizational culture dimensions (both independent variables) and conflict dimensions (dependent variables), and is there a significant predictive effect of the school culture and organizational culture dimensions on the conflict dimensions in Serbian primary schools?

Examining the moderating effect of teachers’ gender through hierarchical regression analysis (Table 4) shows that there is a certain number of relations in which the moderating effects are statistically significant. Their number is not large, but it can be said that the moderating effect of teachers’ gender in the observed relations is expressed on average. This can be considered to answer RQ1.

The moderating effect of teachers’ gender manifests itself in a way that correlations are stronger in women. Therefore, the school culture and organizational culture dimensions significantly reduce the conflict dimensions more in women than in men. The dimensions TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation) especially reduce conflicts from a female perspective. Joint work on lesson preparation, consideration of teaching issues, and insisting on high performance, women understand positively and inspiringly, while the same can cause some discomfort in men and the feeling of imposing additional and unnecessary obligations and pressures. Or, in a slightly more favorable variant, men can have a neutral attitude towards these elements of culture in schools. The results of the regression analysis for the positive effects of the dimensions TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation) on conflicts seem to be primarily related to the male part of the sample. This finding is in agreement with research (Habaci, 2015), which revealed that female teachers generally prefer to adopt a manner in favor of communication and compromise, whereas male teachers adopt an enforcing (oppressive) manner in line with their own opinions.

Other independent variables (TPG—teacher professionalism and goal setting, PTA—professional treatment by administration, HO—humane orientation, and GC—in-group collectivism) act in a similar way as the dimensions TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation), but in these relations, the moderating effect is not statistically significant. However, it can be said that the school culture and organizational culture dimensions have a greater potential to neutralize conflicts in schools for female teachers.

Only the dimension PD (power distance) has a different effect, which significantly encourages CT (task conflict) more in men than in women (r = 0.303 **, Table 4). Power distance affects women less, while men have a harder time enduring imposed authority and high social distance, as well as situations in which obedience is demanded without question. In addition, in the education field in Serbia, incomes and benefits are at a low level, and such a situation particularly affects men, who feel much more strongly the need to provide an appropriate standard of living for their family. As a result, it is significantly harder for men to tolerate a possibly high power distance at school, which then contributes to dissatisfaction and a greater tendency towards conflicts.

5.4. Discussion of the Moderating Effects of the Teachers’ Organizational Commitment (Answering the Research Question RQ2)

Are the teachers’ gender and their organizational commitment moderators of the relationship between school culture and dimensions of organizational culture and dimensions of conflicts in primary schools in Serbia? Examining the moderating effect of teachers’ organizational commitment through hierarchical regression analysis (Table 5) shows that there is a significant number of relationships in which the moderating effect is statistically significant. It can be said that the moderating effect of teachers’ organizational commitment on the observed relations is quite strong. This can be considered to answer RQ2.

The moderating effect of teachers’ organizational commitment is manifested by stronger correlations in conditions of high organizational commitment. Therefore, the school culture and organizational culture dimensions significantly reduce the conflict dimensions when teachers are highly committed than when they have low organizational commitment. This especially applies to the dimensions TPG (teacher professionalism and goal setting), PTA (professional treatment by administration), and HO (humane orientation). A similar result is reached by those who suggest that attachment, engagement, and commitment are in direct opposition to alienation, defining attachment as the degree to which individuals feel part of their school community, including a sense of belonging (Preston et al., 2017 in Looker et al., 2023). According to (Karadağ et al., 2011), there is a strong connection between organizational commitment and school culture dimensions, which additionally explains the results in this paper, according to which, in conditions of high organizational commitment, school culture increases its effects.

The dimension PD (power distance) does not have a statistically significant moderating effect, but it is obvious that it has a significantly greater impact on conflicts when organizational commitment is high (correlation with the conflict dimension r = 0.247 **, Table 5). This influence is statistically significant and positive, which means that in conditions of high organizational commitment, power distance increases conflicts. If teachers are committed, they want to do the job, but if they encounter misunderstandings from management, dissatisfaction grows in them, which can then culminate in conflicts. Therefore, for dedicated teachers, power distance is hard to deal with, and teachers who are less committed to work do not worry as much and do not have the feeling that power distance is too much of a bother when it comes to work. The result can be considered similar to the findings of the reference (Balay, 2007), where it was shown that the nature of work, numerous interactions, and commitment contribute to the fact that educational organizations are strongly sensitive to conflict. The relationship between power distance and organizational commitment is also indicated in the study (Preston et al., 2017 in Looker et al., 2023), where it was shown that individualism and power distance also had significant effects on school belonging.

It can be said that highly committed teachers value a favorable organizational culture more, and it has a stronger effect on them. On the other hand, for less dedicated teachers, a favorable school culture and organizational culture do not mean as much: they are certainly not as connected with the organization (school) nor involved in school activities.

6. Conclusions

By integrating the results of correlation and regression analysis, it can be concluded that, out of all school culture and organizational culture dimensions, the dimensions TPG (teacher professionalism and goal setting) and HO (humane orientation) have the strongest negative effects on conflicts (therefore, favorable effects). On the contrary, the dimension PD (power distance) has a positive effect on conflict dimensions, especially on the dimension CR (relationship conflict). Excessive insistence on TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation) can cause CR (relationship conflict).

All dimensions of conflicts are under the influence of independent variables. In individual correlations, the greatest effect is on CP (process conflict), but in the regression analysis, with the overall effect of independent variables, the greatest effects appear on CR (relationship conflict). The synergy of all elements of school and organizational culture increases the impact on CR (relationship conflict).

The school culture and organizational culture dimensions significantly reduce the conflict dimensions more in women than in men. This is true for most of the independent variables, and especially for the dimensions TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation). Thus, the examination of the moderating effect of the variable gender shows that the positive effects of TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation) on conflicts (revealed in the regression analysis) can be especially associated with men. In men, only the dimension PD (power distance) has a more emphasized effect, which significantly more strongly encourages CT (task conflict) than in women.

The school culture and organizational culture dimensions significantly reduce the conflict dimensions in the case of high teacher commitment. The dimension PD (power distance) has a statistically significant and positive effect on conflicts when organizational commitment is high. Dedicated teachers know how to recognize and appreciate a good school culture, and they are also more bothered if the school’s culture is unfavorable, and this certainly includes circumstances with a high power distance.

By crossing the results for both moderators, it can be concluded that teachers’ gender has a greater influence on relationship conflict, while organizational commitment has a greater effect on task conflict and process conflict: organizational culture has a greater chance of mitigating relationship conflict in women, as well as task conflict and process conflicts in highly committed teachers. All school culture and organizational culture dimensions (except power distance) achieve stronger effects in committed women, while power distance achieves stronger effects in committed men.

In order to minimize conflicts in schools, principals should pay considerable attention to school culture and organizational culture. It is especially important to foster TPG (teacher professionalism and goal setting) and HO (humane orientation). It is necessary to carefully promote the values found in the dimensions TCO (teacher collaboration) and PO (performance orientation) because this can cause counter effects. If teachers’ cooperation is already required concerning teaching issues, as well as the achievement of high performance, then it is important to approach this with tolerance, support, and relaxation regarding the outcomes. Certainly, one should strive to reduce the power distance and understand how it can affect men and highly committed teachers. These results are consistent with the view that modifying the organizational culture itself has been identified as a powerful strategy for managing conflict in schools and that by redefining the cultural norms that support interactions within the school, administrators can foster a more inclusive environment that values diversity of opinion (Roy & Perrin, 2021).

For principals, these findings underscore the critical leadership responsibility of actively shaping and maintaining a positive and inclusive school culture that aligns with the diverse needs of staff. School leaders must strategically emphasize cultural dimensions such as teacher professionalism and goal setting and humane orientation, which have been shown to reduce conflict, while being cautious in how they implement teacher collaboration and performance orientation, ensuring they do not inadvertently create stress or rivalry among staff. Leaders should prioritize reducing power distance, especially to support male and highly committed teachers who may be more sensitive to rigid authority structures. Additionally, principals must tailor their leadership practices to reflect the moderating roles of gender and organizational commitment, recognizing that committed women are particularly responsive to constructive cultural environments.

Therefore, the organizational culture in primary schools has a significant impact on the nature and frequency of conflicts that arise between staff, students, and parents. A positive, open, and inclusive culture can help prevent conflict, promote effective communication, and encourage collaborative conflict resolution. Conversely, a closed, hierarchical, or punitive culture can escalate conflicts and hinder their resolution. School leaders, therefore, play a key role in shaping the culture of their institutions, and by fostering a culture that values mutual respect, collaboration, and inclusiveness, they can help minimize conflict and create a supportive environment for all stakeholders.

The limitation of the research is that the results and suggestions refer to primary schools in Serbia. However, it can be expected that similar relations exist in many other countries, especially countries with similar economic and cultural conditions. The theoretical significance of the work is an additional and detailed review of how individual school culture and organizational culture dimensions influence specific conflict dimensions. In certain segments, the findings of this research agree with the findings of previous research, but there is a greater number of individual relationships that existing studies have not identified. Also, this study reveals some specific effects that have not been recorded so far. This is very significant for a better understanding of the mechanisms of association between the observed variables. The practical significance of the work is that it derives a series of recommendations for principals in elementary schools in terms of shaping a constructive management strategy and minimizing conflicts, which are based on the results of the research.