Integrating Digital Tools with Origami Activities to Enhance Geometric Concepts and Creative Thinking in Kindergarten Education

Abstract

This study investigated the effectiveness of integrating digital tools with origami activities to enhance geometric understanding and creative thinking among kindergarten children in Kuwait. A quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test design involved 60 children (aged from 5 years and 9 months to 6 years), who were randomly assigned to experimental (n = 30) and control (n = 30) groups. The experimental group received a four-week intervention using the Paperama app and paper folding, while the control group followed the standard curriculum. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests showed significant gains in the experimental group’s geometric understanding (Z = 3.82; p < 0.001) and creative thinking (Z = 4.15; p < 0.001), with large effect sizes (r = 0.78). Descriptive analysis further revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in post-test scores for geometric understanding (M = 84.06 vs. M = 74.39), reinforcing the intervention’s practical impact. The control group showed no significant improvement (p = 0.16). These findings highlight the value of blended origami instruction in developing spatial reasoning and creativity. This study contributes to early STEAM education and supports the integration of digital tools into kindergarten learning and teacher training.

1. Introduction

Mathematics is often perceived as a challenging subject; students frequently struggle with it because instruction commonly relies on memorization rather than understanding (Kögce, 2020). In particular, geometry is a specific area within mathematics where students tend to demonstrate weaker performance, as noted in previous research “Geometry is one of the poor areas among pupils” (Kasumu & Idoghor, 2022, p. 2038). This difficulty may stem from the abstract nature of geometry, which requires spatial reasoning beyond rote learning. Traditional methods of early childhood education in mathematics often rely on task completion as a primary metric for success, focusing on drills or repetitive exercises rather than fostering genuine engagement or curiosity through play, exploration, or other activities (Baroody et al., 2019). This reliance on rote learning can hinder children’s natural curiosity and willingness to explore mathematical concepts in depth.

To address this challenge, origami activities have shown promise in enhancing students’ understanding of geometric concepts (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015). By incorporating hands-on methods such as origami, teachers can help students develop a deeper, more intuitive grasp of spatial relationships in geometry. Recent innovations like the Foldscope, which is based on origami design, demonstrate the power of paper-based tools in science and mathematics education (González & García, 2022). Early experiences in mathematics education play a crucial role in helping children transition from informal to formal schooling (Linder, 2017). To facilitate this transition, early childhood mathematics education programs should intentionally incorporate structured instruction. This approach allows children to learn mathematics through guided discovery, enhancing their understanding and engagement (Baroody et al., 2019). By integrating origami into mathematics education, educators can provide an engaging way for children to explore geometric concepts and spatial reasoning, thereby deepening their mathematical understanding.

The most popular types of origami are classical origami and modular origami (Darmayanti & Choirudin, 2023; Tuğrul & Kavici, 2002). Origami has long been included in teaching and learning worldwide (Marji et al., 2023). It has been stated that “Paper folding instruction promoted more effective learning in geometry” (Bornasal et al., 2021, p. 1605). Therefore, educators have begun using origami to teach specific math topics in schools (Davis et al., 2010). Recent studies (e.g., Huang et al., 2023) have used artificial intelligence to investigate the associations between the performance of coloring, origami, and copying activities and visual–motor integration.

Origami, the art of paper folding (Boakes, 2015), naturally emerges from the intersection of mathematics and art (Russell et al., 2019). It has been integrated into educational curricula in various countries due to its documented developmental benefits for children (Marji et al., 2023). Origami encompasses diverse forms and rich production techniques (Wang et al., 2022), making it a versatile educational tool. Using origami to construct models has shown considerable potential in classroom applications (Boakes, 2008), and educators have increasingly adopted it to teach mathematical concepts in schools (Davis et al., 2010). As a result, its extensive mathematical capacity has attracted growing attention in both instructional practices and research in mathematics education (Arslan, 2012; Arslan & Işıksal-Bostan, 2016a; Yazlik & Çetin, 2023). Consequently, origami has gained recognition as a widely accepted instructional method (Boakes, 2009a), offering an effective alternative in relation to the teaching of early mathematical concepts (Respitawulan & Afrianti, 2019). Its educational value is further amplified when incorporated into STEAM-based curricula, and it has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing spatial abilities and promoting interdisciplinary learning (K. Habeeb, 2024; Szűcs & Tóth, 2023).

Origami-based mathematics lessons help children develop spatial abilities, geometric reasoning, and geometric achievement (Shumakov & Shumakov, 2000; Taylor & Hutton, 2013). Origami helps increase the understanding of geometric terms and concepts and spatial visualization skills (Boakes, 2015). The folds, traces, and intersections created during origami illustrate various components of shapes or objects, such as sides, angles, corners, edges, and surfaces (Duatepe-Paksu, 2016).

Origami offers a potent framework for understanding mathematical concepts. Students gain access to readily available manipulatives through origami activities, enabling them to concretely visualize abstract mathematical concepts (Wares, 2016) and increase their mathematical knowledge (Spreafico & Tramuns, 2021; Hull, 2013). Furthermore, paper folding helps students develop fine motor skills, which are necessary for various learning activities such as writing and drawing (Marji et al., 2023). As a result, previous research (e.g., Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015) has suggested the integration of origami into geometry curricula in order to make geometry learning more effective.

Origami-based instruction has been shown to positively impact students’ spatial abilities. However, participants encountered several challenges, including difficulties in understanding the instructions, managing the materials effectively, and achieving the desired accuracy in their folds. These obstacles highlighted the complexity of the task and the need for clear guidance and practice to enhance participants’ skills and confidence in paper-folding activities. This aligns with previous findings, which suggest that proper instruction and hands-on experience are crucial for success in such tasks (Cakmak et al., 2014).

Origami improves spatial abilities and numerical skills (Krisztián et al., 2015) and increases children’s general motivation (Taylor & Hutton, 2013; Tuğrul & Kavici, 2002), geometry achievement, geometric reasoning (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015), and fine motor skills (Respitawulan & Afrianti, 2019).

Origami involves mental rotation and motor activity (Shumakov & Shumakov, 2000) and offers an alternative strategy for teaching mathematics concepts in early childhood settings (Respitawulan & Afrianti, 2019). Origami-based instruction notably impacts spatial visualization, geometric achievement, and geometric reasoning (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015). Origami is a good tool for designing and testing the quality of design ideas (Ramadan, 2022).

The origami method is viewed as a tool for constructing cognitive artifacts and is a valid strategy for “learning by doing”. Origami has numerous uses in mathematics education, including visualization, spatial enhancement, problem-solving skills, self-confidence, patience, and concentration (Spreafico & Tramuns, 2019). Using origami activities in teaching directly and indirectly affects spatial ability, geometric reasoning, and geometric achievement (Shumakov & Shumakov, 2000; Taylor & Hutton, 2013). Therefore, educators must incorporate origami exercises into children’s education (Yuzawa & Bart, 2002).

Previous research has focused on activities conducted in classes for children aged 5 to 7, providing ample details to enable teachers to replicate the project in their classrooms (Spreafico & Tramuns, 2019). Other research endeavors have incorporated a project blending art, mathematics, and origami, aligning with the STEAM approach, involving 16-year-old students exploring aspects of artwork through origami models (Spreafico & Tramuns, 2021). In other studies, famous paintings were employed as templates for creating origami models and shapes, culminating in collaborative 3D artwork. Each origami model was paired with a math lesson that was tailored to correlate thematic elements and foster connections between various mathematical subjects. The Castle and Sun paintings were selected at the kindergarten level to enable students to recognize triangles and squares. Children appreciate these activities, which improve their mathematical understanding (Spreafico & Tramuns, 2019).

Much of this research has been dedicated to utilizing basic origami models and adapting them to practical classroom manipulatives for teaching mathematics (Brady, 2008). Owing to the numerous advantages of origami as an innovative teaching approach, the potential integration of origami into high school geometry lessons in order to enhance the effectiveness of geometry learning has been highlighted in previous research (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015). According to Marji et al. (2023), origami activities increase students’ attractiveness and appositive attitudes toward mathematics and geometry.

Since 1989, many successful international scientific conferences have delved into the intersections of origami, mathematics, science, and education. These conferences included the first international meeting of origami science and technology, Italy (1989); the second international meeting of origami science and scientific origami, Japan (1994); the third international meeting of origami science, mathematics, and education, USA (2001); the fourth international conference on origami in science, mathematics, and education, USA (2001); the fifth international conference on origami in science, mathematics, and education, Singapore (2010); the sixth international conference on origami in science, mathematics, and education, Japan (2016); and the seventh international conference on origami in science, mathematics, and education, UK (2018) (Lang, 2024). The eighth international conference on origami in science, mathematics, and education was held in Australia from 16 to 18 July 2024. These gatherings of the global origami community indicate the importance of origami as a fundamental approach to teaching and learning mathematics and science.

Origami-folding techniques effectively teach mathematical concepts and contribute to students’ personal and professional development. Pre-service teachers encountered difficulties articulating the steps of origami and experienced challenges in choosing models and exploring concepts through origami during their teaching practice (Yazlik & Çetin, 2023). Despite incorporating origami into instructional practices, limited research is available on its application in geometry education (Bayrak, 2008; Yuzawa & Bart, 2002).

Children frequently encounter challenges while learning mathematics and geometry, making them perceive these subjects as unpleasant and unenjoyable. Therefore, early childhood educators must demonstrate creativity and innovation in order to motivate and captivate children, thereby nurturing the early development of mathematical understanding (Respitawulan & Afrianti, 2019). In this context, origami has emerged as a suitable strategy for assisting preschoolers in grasping geometric concepts.

2. Literature Review

In the 1860s and 1870s, Japan embraced the European education system, leading to the incorporation of European origami into kindergarten curricula. Moreover, with increasing international travel, Japanese origami has gained popularity in the Western world. Consequently, the contemporary state of origami has evolved through cultural exchange (Hatori, 2011). Origami has long been practiced worldwide in teaching and learning (Marji et al., 2023). It is not simply confined to the kindergarten setting, having been introduced into the curriculum of primary and secondary schools (Arslan & Işıksal-Bostan, 2016b) and ninth-grade students (Manlangit, 2024). For instance, Boakes (2011) used an origami instructional program with undergraduate college students and reported a significant increase in spatial ability scores between the pre-test and post-test.

Origami has frequently been utilized for mathematics education in elementary school (Arslan & Işıksal-Bostan, 2016b; Cakmak et al., 2014; DeYoung, 2009; Taylor & Hutton, 2013) and middle school (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015; Boakes, 2009b; Yuzawa et al., 1999) settings; however, its application for teaching mathematical concepts in early childhood remains underdeveloped (Respitawulan & Afrianti, 2019).

According to Spreafico and Tramuns (2021), origami is an innovative method for teaching mathematics in kindergarten settings, fostering the development of lessons, designing novel models and unique materials, generating cognitive artifacts, and providing training to preschool teachers. Boakes (2015) found that origami lessons integrated into mathematics education were as advantageous as conventional instruction in fostering the comprehension of geometric terms, concepts, and spatial visualization skills. Origami affects the spatial abilities of both males and females in distinct ways.

The origami intervention program “think3d!” resulted in significant gains in spatial thinking, as measured via mental paper folding (Taylor & Hutton, 2013). Cakmak et al. (2014) reported a significant impact of origami-based instruction on elementary students’ spatial visualization and spatial orientation scores. Additionally, 37 students (97.4%) held positive attitudes toward origami-based instruction. A total of 32 students (84.2%) expressed enjoyment and entertainment with origami-based lessons, whereas 21 (55.3%) perceived the origami model classes as being beneficial.

Krisztián et al. (2015) used a 10-week origami-based intervention to improve 5th and 6th graders’ mathematical performance and intrinsic and dynamic spatial abilities. The experimental group included 13 students, while control groups 1 and 2 included 12 elementary school students with and without mathematical difficulties. The experimental group scored significantly better than both control groups regarding spatial abilities and numerical tasks.

Imaroonrak et al. (2018) investigated the effect of origami training on the creativity and visual–motor integration levels of five-year-old preschool children. Specifically, the study compared creativity and visual–motor integration scores before and after students participated in origami training within the experimental group, comparing these scores with those of the control groups. The findings revealed significant differences in post-test creativity and visual–motor integration scores between the experimental and control groups. Consequently, origami training programs may improve creativity and visual–motor integration among preschool children.

Respitawulan and Afrianti (2019) examined a hypothetical learning strategy for early childhood mathematics concepts using origami constructions in a limited trial with 17 kindergarten teachers. The results indicated an improvement in teachers’ knowledge following the use of origami. Yazlik and Çetin (2023) recommended allocating additional time during teaching practice courses to address the challenges associated with incorporating origami. This extended time enables pre-service teachers to engage in practical experiences and teach mathematics using origami in real classroom settings. Based on the above-mentioned theoretical background, the following hypothesis was formulated: origami-based interventions improve the mathematical knowledge of kindergarten children in Kuwait.

In a recent systematic review of studies published between 2018 and 2023, Marji et al. (2023) investigated the effects of origami on student development. Their findings showed that origami effectively improved students’ math and geometric skills. Paper folding enabled students to improve their spatial reasoning, geometric thinking, problem solving, and motor skills. Furthermore, origami significantly influenced students’ psychological well-being and emotions, offering a serene and comforting activity that reduced stress and anxiety.

In a quasi-experimental study, Manlangit (2024) reported the effectiveness of using manipulatives, specifically paper folding, to teach geometry to 9th-grade students. In addition, the experimental group displayed a favorable attitude toward the paper-folding method according to the geometry instructions. However, Boakes (2008) found that origami instruction was as beneficial as the traditional teaching of geometrical terms and concepts. On the other hand, while mathematics educators have undoubtedly employed origami for instructional purposes in various ways, there is a notable scarcity of research examining the above assertions (Boakes, 2006).

2.1. Origami and Geometric Concepts

Original mathematics teaching methods have recently become a focal point in mathematical inquiry (Hull, 2013). When origami is used to teach geometry, children “can visualize different geometric concepts and relationships by making constructions with paper” (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015, p. 188). Preschoolers have been shown to evaluate the areas of geometric shapes based solely on one dimension or one prominent aspect of the stimulus (Case et al., 1996).

In contrast, other researchers have argued that children incorporate multiple aspects of stimuli and assess areas through an additive combination of height and width (Anderson & Cuneo, 1978). According to Yuzawa and Bart (2002), whether children focus solely on one dimension or consider both dimensions of geometric figures depends on their strategy. Specifically, when children position two figures together or side by side, they adjust them based on only one dimension or without considering any dimension. Origami has been found to improve students’ geometric skills (Marji et al., 2023). Manipulatives can significantly improve students’ geometric reasoning abilities by establishing an appropriate environment for a shift from empirical to abstract thinking. Therefore, origami is a valuable resource for teaching geometry (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015) and geometric reasoning (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015; Boakes, 2006) because it incorporates numerous geometric concepts, such as congruence, angle bisectors, triangles, and polyhedra (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015).

2.2. Origami and Creative Thinking in Geometry

“Creative and innovative thinking and inquiry can be fostered by geometry learning” (as cited by Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015; Bakanlığı, 2010). Creative thinking in geometry enables children to produce many unconventional and diverse geometric ideas by assembling innovative geometric shapes from given ones. Creative thinking in geometry involves fluency, flexibility, and originality. Fluency is a child’s ability to produce geometric solutions and ideas using origami. Flexibility is a child’s ability to produce geometric solutions and ideas using the art of paper folding. Originality refers to the child’s ability to produce new geometric ideas using origami.

Russell et al. (2019, p. 651) argued that “paper folding enhances creative development in both students and teachers.” Origami serves as a catalyst for creative expression and design inspiration (Wang et al., 2022). Setiawati (2019) identified five dimensions through which origami fosters creative functioning in preschool children: (a) generating novel ideas, (b) producing original products, (c) reorganizing existing information into new forms, (d) translating idealistic concepts into practice, and (e) promoting autonomous thinking. Similarly, Ramadan (2022) developed an origami-based instructional strategy to support the creation of glass sculptures in interior architecture courses, highlighting improvements in students’ design skills, innovation, and artistic sensitivity. These findings are consistent with broader trends in art and design education, where origami is increasingly used to promote creative thinking through experimentation, visualization, and imaginative engagement (Martínez & Pérez, 2023).

Some empirical studies have used origami activities to improve geometry educationand creative thinking skills (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015; Manlangit, 2024; Russell et al., 2019; Setiawati, 2019). The results of these studies are expected to provide teachers with a practical method that can contribute to the devel-opment of geometric concepts among kindergarten children. Curriculum planners may benefit from designing activities and improving their instructional methods. Accordingly, and in response to the identified gap in the existing literature concerning the use of integrated digital and traditional instructional methods in early childhood education within the Kuwaiti context, the present study aims to examine the effectiveness of such an intervention in enhancing kindergarten children’s understanding of geometric concepts and fostering their creative thinking skills in geometry.

Despite origami’s documented benefits for spatial skills (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015), no studies have examined hybrid digital- physical origami interventions in Kuwaiti early childhood settings, which is a gap that this study addresses by testing the null hypothesis.

H₁. 

There is no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in improving kindergarten children’s understanding of geometric concepts and creative thinking skills following the intervention.

3. Methods

3.1. Research Design

This study adopted a quasi-experimental design with two groups (experimental and control) using a pre-test–post-test model. The sample was divided into two groups that were as equivalent as possible in demographic and educational characteristics; one group served as the experimental group, and the other served as the control group. To enhance control, the researcher systematically assigned participants to the two groups. For example, if it was possible to select two similar classrooms within the same school or in comparable schools, one classroom was randomly assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group. In cases where random individual assignment was not feasible (due to practical considerations in the school environment), existing natural classes were adopted while ensuring maximum equivalence (in terms of children’s age, social background, and teachers’ educational experience) to maintain comparability between groups.

This design (two groups with pre-test and post-test measurements) is classified as a quasi-experimental study because it lacks full random individual assignment, yet it allows for an assessment of the effect of the intervention by comparing the performance change between groups before and after the experiment. Although full individual randomization was not feasible due to practical constraints within the kindergarten settings, cluster randomization at the classroom level was employed wherever possible. This approach minimized selection bias and enhanced the internal validity of the quasi-experimental design.

3.2. Participants

The researcher ensured that all participants came from similar educational environments; all children were enrolled in public kindergartens within the same geographical area and shared relatively similar socioeconomic backgrounds, thus minimizing extraneous factors. The two groups were matched in mean age (from approximately 5 years and 9 months to 6 years and 0 months) and in previous educational experiences related to geometric concepts, e.g., most had no prior experience with origami activities (see

Table 1. Sample demographic characteristics.

Characteristic	Experimental Group	Control Group
Age (mean ± SD)	5.9 ± 0.2 years	5.9 ± 0.2 years
Gender (Male/Female)	15/15	16/14
Socioeconomic Background	Homogeneous	Homogeneous
Prior Origami Experience	None/Minimal	None/Minimal

SD = standard deviation.

for sample demographic characteristics). Additionally, the age range of the participating children (5 years and 9 months to 6 years and 0 months) was narrow, and preliminary analyses confirmed that age differences within this range did not significantly influence pre-test scores, thus minimizing concerns about age-related bias in the results.

A total of 60 children participated in the study and were divided equally into an experimental group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30). The experimental group engaged in a four-week intervention that integrated paper-folding activities with the use of the Paperama digital application. To ensure consistency across sessions, the researcher provided standardized session guidelines outlining the sequence and objectives of each activity, which were followed by all instructors. Prior to the intervention, brief orientation sessions were conducted with the classroom teachers assigned to the experimental group. These sessions provided guidance on how to facilitate the origami activities, support the children’s use of the Paperama application, and maintain consistency in instructional delivery. Teachers were instructed to follow the standardized session guidelines to ensure uniformity across all sessions.

The control group received conventional instruction based on the standard kindergarten mathematics curriculum without exposure to origami activities. Throughout the intervention period, efforts were made to maintain consistency in the classroom environment, with the same teachers being present and no significant changes in daily routines, thus minimizing external influences on the children’s performance. Assignment to the experimental or control group was conducted at the classroom level in order to maintain the integrity of existing classroom structures and minimize disruption to the children’s normal routines. Although full individual randomization was not feasible due to practical constraints, cluster randomization at the classroom level was employed wherever possible to minimize selection bias and enhance the internal validity of the quasi-experimental design.

Informed consent was obtained from the parents of all participants following a detailed explanation of the study’s objectives, procedures, and voluntary nature. Children also had the right to verbally decline participation at any stage. Strict confidentiality and anonymity were maintained throughout the study, with each child assigned a unique identification code for data analysis purposes.

The experimental and control groups were well-matched in terms of age (mean = 5.9 ± 0.2 years), gender distribution (~50% male/female), socioeconomic background (homogeneous), and prior origami experience (none/minimal). This homogeneity ensured that the observed differences in post-intervention outcomes are likely attributable to the origami intervention rather than confounding variables. The balanced demographic profile supports the internal validity of the study.

The homogeneity of age, gender, socioeconomic status, and prior exposure to origami ensures that any observed post-intervention differences can be reasonably attributed to the instructional strategy rather than extraneous variables.

This alignment strengthens causal inferences in accordance with Campbell and Stanley’s criteria for pre-test–post-test nonequivalent group designs.

A purposive convenient sampling method was employed; classrooms and schools that allowed for the implementation of the intervention within their regular schedule were selected. Written informed consent was obtained from the children’s guardians after explaining the study’s purpose and procedures, emphasizing the right to withdraw at any time without consequences.

3.3. Ethical Considerations

This study adhered to all ethical standards for research involving young children. Authorization was obtained from the Kuwait Ministry of Education, the educational district, the kindergarten administration, and the participating teachers. Written informed consent was secured from parents after providing a clear explanation of the study’s purpose, procedures, and activities, including the use of digital and physical origami. Participation was entirely voluntary, with the right to withdraw being granted at any stage.

To ensure children’s safety and comfort, activities were age-appropriate, used safe materials, and were conducted under teacher supervision. Children could verbally decline participation at any time. Privacy and data confidentiality were strictly maintained by anonymizing participant information, using secure storage for all data, and requiring explicit consent for the use of any images or creative outputs. To uphold research integrity, standardized intervention procedures were employed, and any pre-existing group differences were statistically addressed. Although only the experimental group received the intervention, the control group was later offered origami activities to ensure fairness and equal access to educational opportunities.

3.4. Instruments

This study utilized two primary instruments to measure the targeted outcomes among children geometric concepts and creative geometric thinking. Both instruments were administered equally to the two groups in both the pre-test and post-test phases.

3.5. Test of Geometric Concepts

This test, which was designed by the researcher, assessed children’s understanding of basic geometric concepts. It consisted of 20 items in multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank formats, covering skills such as distinguishing between different types of lines (straight, curved, and broken), identifying two-dimensional geometric shapes (e.g., rectangle and square), and recognizing three-dimensional shapes (e.g., sphere and cone).

Additional questions assessed the ability to distinguish between equally and unequally divided shapes and to shade equal parts resulting from folding activities. Children received one point for each correct answer and zero for each incorrect answer, yielding a total score ranging from 0 to 20 points.

A panel of five experts in curriculum, instruction, and child psychology reviewed the test items to ensure content validity and age appropriateness. The test’s reliability was verified in the original study using the split half method and the Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20), resulting in a reliability coefficient of 0.886, which indicated a high level of stability.

3.6. Creative Geometric Thinking Test

Also designed by the researcher, this test measured children’s creative problem-solving abilities in geometric contexts using origami. It comprised 36 diverse questions (multiple choice, short answer, and open-ended questions) based on scenarios involving paper folding to explore geometric solutions.

Examples included asking the child to find as many solutions or different shapes as possible by folding a given figure, or to determine the number of shaded equal parts after folding paper into halves or quarters.

The questions targeted all aspects of creative thinking fluency (generating multiple ideas), flexibility (producing varied ideas), originality (producing novel solutions), and the ability to connect origami to geometric concepts.

Scoring involved awarding one point per correct answer, with open-ended responses receiving additional points (up to 6 points) based on the quality and variety of solutions. Thus, the maximum possible score was 216 points (36 items × 6 points).

Experts also reviewed this instrument to ensure face and content validity. The internal consistency reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding a coefficient of 0.73, which was considered acceptable for creative assessments.

3.7. Administration of Instruments

Given that the sample consisted of preschool children who were not proficient in reading and writing, both tests were administered individually. Classroom teachers assisted by reading questions aloud and explaining instructions simply.

The researcher or research assistants sat individually with each child to guide them through the items without providing any hints.

On average, the geometric concepts test required about 10–15 min per child, while the creative geometric thinking test took about 15–20 min due to the open-ended nature of the questions. Testing was conducted under uniform conditions across both groups, in familiar environments (the child’s classroom or a quiet room within the kindergarten) and with familiar figures (teachers or the researcher) in order to minimize anxiety and ensure the children’s comfort during the assessment.

3.8. Study Procedures

This study followed a systematic sequence of steps to ensure consistent intervention implementation and an accurate measurement of its effects.

3.9. Pre-Testing

At the outset of the study, before any intervention, both groups underwent pre-testing using the two instruments described above. Pre-testing occurred over two consecutive days in each participating kindergarten. The first day was dedicated to administering the geometric concepts tests. Children’s results were recorded confidentially for later comparison with post-test outcomes. Teachers were instructed not to deliver any additional lessons related to geometric concepts during this period to ensure that pre-test scores accurately reflected children’s baseline performance without external influence.

3.10. Educational Intervention (Experimental Group)

Following pre-testing, the experimental group participated in an educational program integrating origami paper folding and digital origami activities aimed at enhancing geometric concepts and creative thinking.

The intervention lasted four weeks, with approximately three 45-min sessions per week being conducted within the kindergarten setting. The researcher conducted regular classroom visits to monitor adherence to the intervention protocol and to provide support if needed, thereby ensuring implementation fidelity across experimental sessions.

The researcher, along with classroom teachers, supervised the sessions following a structured plan.

Introduction to Digital Origami (Paperama Application): In the first session, children were introduced to the Paperama app via a visual projector. The researcher demonstrated how to virtually fold paper to create simple geometric shapes.

After the demonstration, each child was provided with a tablet (iPad) containing the Paperama app and was encouraged to solve sequential tasks independently.

Children progressively explored multiple levels with increasing difficulty, fostering their spatial visualization and providing immediate feedback on folding accuracy (minimum 80% precision required to advance).

The digital interaction enhanced children’s engagement and stimulated their interest in spatial tasks.

Paper Origami Activities: After the digital segment, sessions transitioned to hands-on paper origami activities. Starting with simple folds suitable for preschoolers (e.g., the basic “accordion” fold), children practiced folding paper following live demonstrations.

Throughout the month, children advanced to forming various two-dimensional shapes (e.g., square and triangle) and progressively more complex models (such as paper envelopes and boats), linking these shapes to learned geometric concepts.

Activities emphasized creativity, encouraging children to predict shapes, modify folds, and innovate, thus fostering deeper cognitive engagement.

Reinforcement Strategies and Interaction: Positive reinforcement was consistently used to motivate children. Verbal praise (“Excellent, that’s a triangle!”) and simple rewards like star stickers were given uniformly across the group.

Additionally, opportunities were provided for children to showcase their folded creations and discuss their ideas, boosting self confidence and creative expression.

Activities were periodically documented (through field notes and photographic records) to ensure treatment fidelity and to qualitatively assess children’s engagement.

3.11. Control Group Procedure

The control group did not receive any origami-based interventions during the study period. They continued with their usual classroom activities following the standard mathematics curriculum, covering basic geometric shapes through traditional methods (e.g., flashcards and colored blocks), without incorporating paper-folding activities or the Paperama app.

Teachers were instructed to avoid introducing extraordinary geometric activities during the experimental period, ensuring the children’s learning experiences remained traditional.

Both groups operated under the same four-week timeframe to ensure temporal equivalence.

3.12. Post-Test

At the conclusion of the four week intervention, a post-test, which was identical in instruments and procedures to the pre-test, was administered. Post-testing was conducted within the week following the intervention, over two consecutive days per classroom. Children’s post-test scores were confidentially matched to their pre-test scores using unique identifiers. After data collection, children and teachers were thanked for their participation. Additionally, all children, including those in the control group, were offered a fun, simplified origami activity session as a token of appreciation and to ensure equal exposure to origami experiences after the study’s conclusion.

3.13. Statistical Procedures

In line with the quasi-experimental design of the study, appropriate statistical analyses were conducted to assess the differences between the experimental and control groups. Initially, descriptive statistics were used to compute means, standard deviations, and score distributions for pre-test and post-test data across both groups. To evaluate the statistical significance of performance differences, a repeated measures ANOVA was used for between-group comparisons, while the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was applied for within-group comparisons when normality assumptions were not fully met.

In response to reviewer feedback and to increase the analytical rigor of the study, additional statistical procedures were incorporated. These included the calculation and reporting of effect sizes (r) for all key comparisons, following Cohen’s (1988) guidelines, which interpret r = 0.78 as a large effect. Furthermore, 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed for the difference in post-test means to enhance transparency and estimation precision. Descriptive visualizations (boxplots and mean ± SD charts) were also developed to illustrate the magnitude and consistency of score changes in both groups.

These complementary procedures not only enhance the robustness of the analysis, particularly given the modest sample size, but also align with methodological best practices in small-sample educational intervention research (Bausell & Li, 2002; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Campbell & Stanley, 2015). This multi-faceted approach supports a nuanced interpretation of the findings while acknowledging their exploratory and context-specific nature.

4. Results

A detailed data analysis plan was established to test the study’s hypothesis regarding the effects of using origami (both digital and paper-based) on the development of children’s geometric concepts and creative geometric thinking. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 26) was used to conduct appropriate statistical analyses, according to the following steps.

Before conducting the main analyses, the data were screened for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Preliminary normality checks indicated that the data did not significantly deviate from a normal distribution (p > 0.05), justifying the use of parametric analyses such as the two-way repeated measures ANOVA.

Given that the data met the normality assumption for the overall scores, a two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine interaction effects, while non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were selectively employed for within-group comparisons, where deviations from normality were observed at the subgroup level.

4.1. Exploratory Data Examination

Initially, the raw data were inspected to identify any outliers or missing values that could affect the results. Assumptions for analysis were verified, including testing for the normality of pre-test and post-test scores within each group using the Shapiro–Wilk test, as well as for homogeneity of variance between groups using Levene’s test. Depending on the findings, the most appropriate parametric or non-parametric tests were selected.

4.2. Main Comparative Analysis

To examine the program’s impact, a two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (two-way repeated measures ANOVA) was conducted. This analysis tested the effects of time (pre-test vs. post-test) and group (experimental vs. control), as well as the interaction between time and group (see

Table 2. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA results.

Source	F	p-Value	Partial Eta Squared (${\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathbf{p}}^{\mathbf{2}}$)
Time	12.45	<0.001	0.21
Group	1.32	0.25	0.03
Time × Group Interaction	15.76	<0.001	0.26

for two-way repeated measures ANOVA results). This method is ideal for detecting whether there was a statistically significant difference in improvement between the groups over time. A statistically significant interaction effect at the 0.05 level would support the hypothesis that the experimental group experienced greater improvement due to the origami-based intervention.

The time × group interaction was statistically significant (F = 15.76; p < 0.001; ${\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^2$ = 0.26), indicating that the experimental group experienced a significantly greater improvement from pre- to post-test compared to the control group.

The large effect size suggests that the origami-based intervention had a meaningful and substantial educational impact. Additionally, the main effect of time (F = 12.45; p < 0.001) indicates an overall improvement across both groups, while the non-significant group effect (p = 0.25) confirms that baseline differences were negligible.

This outcome aligns with constructivist learning theory (Piaget, 2013; Vygotsky & Cole, 1978), which emphasizes the importance of active, hands-on engagement in the construction of knowledge. The use of origami in this study provided a concrete, manipulative learning experience that fostered children’s geometric understanding. Furthermore, the observed effect size (${\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^2$ = 0.26) meets Cohen’s (1988) criteria for a large effect, reinforcing the practical significance of the instructional approach.

4.3. Follow-Up and Additional Tests

When statistically significant differences were identified, follow-up tests were conducted to explore the nature of these differences. Independent samples t-tests were used to directly compare post-test scores between the two groups. See

Table 3. Post-test comparison between experimental and control groups.

Test	Mean Difference (Exp–Control)	t-Value	p-Value	Effect Size (r)
Independent Samples t-test	5.6	7.82	<0.001	0.78

for post-test comparison between the experimental and control groups.

An independent samples t-test revealed a statistically significant difference in post-test scores between the experimental and control groups (t = 7.82; p < 0.001), with a mean difference of 5.6 points, thus favoring the experimental group.

The large effect size (r = 0.78) suggests that the origami-based intervention had a strong, educationally meaningful impact on young children’s understanding of geometric concepts and their creative thinking skills.

These findings support the broader literature on embodied and multimodal learning approaches in early STEM education. As Boakes (2009a, 2009b) emphasized, origami not only enhances spatial reasoning but also fosters flexible thinking and creativity competencies, which are essential for 21st century learners. The intervention also aligns with the principles of the “Universal Design for Learning” (UDL), which advocate for engaging students through multiple modalities. Origami, by integrating kinesthetic, visual, and cognitive elements, provides an inclusive instructional strategy that supports diverse learning needs.

These findings are also in line with recent research on interdisciplinary approaches that integrate arts and sciences to enhance cognitive outcomes in kindergarten settings (K. M. Habeeb et al., 2024).

Overall, the results provide compelling evidence for incorporating arts into STEAM activities in kindergarten classrooms in order to simultaneously nurture creativity and foundational mathematical understanding. Thus, the null hypothesis were rejected. The findings support the idea that the origami-based intervention (both physical and digital) significantly improved the geometric and creative thinking outcomes among kindergarten children in the experimental group compared to the control group.

4.4. Descriptive Comparison of Post-Test Scores

In order to provide a clearer depiction of the differences in performance between the two groups, a descriptive statistical comparison of post-test scores on geometric concepts was conducted. This additional analysis aims to highlight the practical significance of the observed learning gains in the experimental group beyond statistical significance alone. The comparison focuses on measures of central tendency, variability, and score range for each group. The post-test scores revealed a marked difference between the experimental and control groups. The experimental group demonstrated a higher mean score (M = 84.06, SD = 4.50) compared to the control group (M = 74.39, SD = 4.66). The score distribution, as shown in

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics for Post-Test Scores on Geometric Concepts.

Group	Mean (M)	Std. Deviation (SD)	Minimum	Maximum
Experimental	84.06	4.50	75.47	92.13
Control	74.39	4.66	66.94	82.58

, indicates a consistent improvement in the experimental group, characterized by higher central tendency and reduced variability, with no apparent extreme values.

This difference in performance was further supported by a large effect size (r = 0.78), suggesting that the origami-based intervention had a strong practical impact. The observed 95% confidence interval for the mean difference did not cross zero, further reinforcing the significance of the outcome.

To assess within-group improvements from pre- to post-test, paired samples t-tests were conducted. When normality assumptions were not met, the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test was employed instead. See

Table 5. Pre-test–post-test comparison within groups.

Group	Pre-Test Mean (SD)	Post-Test Mean (SD)	t-Value (Paired Samples)	p-Value
Experimental	10.2 (2.1)	16.8 (1.8)	8.65	<0.001
Control	10.4 (2.0)	11.2 (2.3)	1.45	0.16

Note: SD = standard deviation.

for pre-test–post-test comparisons within each group.

In the experimental group, a significant increase in mean scores from 10.2 to 16.8 (t = 8.65; p < 0.001) demonstrates the effectiveness of the origami-based intervention in enhancing geometric understanding and creative thinking. In contrast, the control group showed no significant improvement (10.4 to 11.2; t = 1.45; p = 0.16), indicating that conventional instruction produced minimal measurable gains.

This performance gap highlights origami’s unique pedagogical potential, particularly in fostering spatial and conceptual skills through hands-on engagement. The findings are consistent with embodied cognition theory (Wilson, 2002), which posits that the direct manipulation of physical forms strengthens mental representations of abstract concepts. Additionally, this contrast reinforces constructivist perspectives (Resnick, 2004), which emphasize the value of discovery-based and manipulation-rich tasks in facilitating deep learning.

Taken together, these results provide compelling support for the hypothesis that integrated origami instruction enhances both conceptual understanding and creative expression in young children. While the current study focused on the short-term outcomes, future research should examine long-term retention and explore the scalability of this approach across diverse early education contexts.

Collectively, the findings reinforce the pedagogical merit of arts integration and kinesthetic learning modalities in early mathematics instruction, encouraging a shift from traditional methods to experiential approaches in early childhood settings.

5. Discussion

The findings of this study provide empirical evidence that an origami-based intervention, combining both traditional paper folding and digital tools, can significantly enhance kindergarten children’s understanding of geometric concepts and stimulate their creative thinking skills. The statistically significant differences in performance between the experimental and control groups, supported by a large effect size (r = 0.78), offer clear support for rejecting the null hypothesis (H₁) and affirm the study’s directional assumption that well-structured, manipulative-based learning can produce measurable cognitive benefits at this developmental stage. This result is consistent with the theoretical frameworks of constructivist learning (Piaget, 2013; Vygotsky & Cole, 1978) and embodied cognition, both of which emphasize that active, hands-on experiences are fundamental to young children’s acquisition of abstract concepts (Boakes, 2009a, 2009b; Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015; Wilson, 2002).

Moreover, the study extends the scope of existing literature by demonstrating that origami’s well-documented benefits in geometry learning among older students (Boakes, 2009b; Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015) can be effectively leveraged in early childhood contexts when carefully adapted to the developmental needs of preschool learners. Notably, situating this intervention within the Kuwaiti context fills a clear gap in research, where studies on early STEAM integration remain limited.

5.1. Effectiveness of Origami in Geometric Concepts

The significant improvement in geometric concept understanding (p < 0.001) within the experimental group highlights origami’s unique value in transforming abstract geometric notions into tangible, graspable forms. As emphasized by Arıcı and Aslan-Tutak (2015) and Boakes (2009b), paper folding provides a concrete bridge between children’s sensory-motor skills and their developing spatial reasoning. By physically manipulating paper to create lines, angles, edges, and 2D/3D shapes, children actively construct mental representations that traditional lecture-based or rote methods fail to develop.

The integration of the Paperama app further enriched this process by adding a digital scaffold that supported the development of spatial visualization skills in a gradual, feedback-rich manner. The immediate feedback loop provided by the app likely reinforced the correct execution of folds, enabling children to make connections between virtual and physical manipulations. This echoes the assertions of Boakes (2015) that carefully designed technological supports can amplify the benefits of manipulative learning in mathematics.

5.2. Enhancement of Creative Thinking in Geometry

In addition to gains in geometric understanding, the experimental group demonstrated substantial improvements in creative thinking (p < 0.001). Origami, by its nature, encourages children to move beyond passive reproduction of shapes towards exploration, invention, and self-expression. By asking children to generate multiple folding outcomes and to experiment with modifying folds, the activities naturally engaged fluency, flexibility, and originality three core dimensions of creative thinking (Russell et al., 2019; Setiawati, 2019).

This aligns with K. M. Habeeb and Ebrahim (2019), who argue that rich, visually engaging activities are critical for fostering early creative capacities. The dual mode digital and physical likely optimized this effect. On the one hand, the structured tasks in Paperama provided clear goals and skill scaffolding; on the other, the hands-on folding sessions offered an open-ended context where children could test ideas freely and develop confidence in their design choices. This interplay demonstrates the potential of integrated STEAM strategies to support creative learning through experimentation and iteration.

These findings further confirm the role of origami as an effective instructional method for nurturing higher-order thinking skills in young children a priority emphasized in recent STEAM education research. The evidence suggests that such activities should not be viewed merely as artistic add-ons but as integral to cognitive development in early years.

5.3. Comparative Gains over Traditional Methods

The contrast with the control group, which showed negligible improvement (p = 0.16), underscores the limitations of conventional, non-manipulative instructional methods. This disparity reinforces the argument that young children benefit more from approaches that combine concrete materials, guided exploration, and active engagement (Baroody et al., 2019). When children passively receive information about shapes and geometric relations without the chance to physically interact with those ideas, their understanding remains superficial.

By contrast, the experimental group’s significant gains support constructivist calls to incorporate more hands-on, play-based, and discovery-oriented methods in early mathematics curricula. The large effect size (r = 0.78) reported here provides practical evidence that origami can serve not just as an enrichment tool but as a core strategy for early geometry instruction, yielding tangible cognitive outcomes that traditional lecture-based lessons often fail to produce.

5.4. Theoretical and Practical Implications

Theoretical Contributions: This study contributes to constructivist and embodied cognition theories by empirically demonstrating that young children’s abstract reasoning skills in geometry can be effectively enhanced through concrete manipulative tasks combined with digital scaffolds (Wilson, 2002). It also lends support to cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988), suggesting that multimodal interventions blending visual, kinesthetic, and digital elements can help balance cognitive demands and promote deeper conceptual understanding.

Further, the positive outcomes align with related research on similar folding-based projects, such as pop-up storybooks, which Lee and Wong (2024) found to improve computational and spatial thinking among talented young learners. By situating origami within the broader context of early STEAM education, this study expands our understanding of how arts integration can support foundational STEM skills development.

Practical Implications: For practitioners and curriculum designers, the findings emphasize the need to embed origami and related hands-on activities systematically within early mathematics programs. Teacher training should include practical strategies for combining traditional paper folding with simple digital tools like the Paperama app to maximize learning outcomes. This dual approach can accommodate different learning preferences and sustain engagement through novelty and challenge.

Additionally, the results suggest that policymakers should support the integration of arts-based approaches within national early childhood curricula to ensure that children’s creative and spatial thinking skills are cultivated alongside foundational numeracy skills.

In sum, this study provides promising initial evidence that origami when implemented through a carefully balanced combination of digital and traditional activities may support the development of both geometric understanding and creative thinking among kindergarten children. These findings align with and extend previous research (Arıcı & Aslan-Tutak, 2015; Baroody et al., 2019; Boakes, 2009a, 2009b; K. M. Habeeb & Ebrahim, 2019; Lee & Wong, 2024; Russell et al., 2019; Setiawati, 2019; Sweller, 1988; Wilson, 2002). This growing body of work underscores the value of rethinking early mathematics instruction to include experiential, manipulative-rich, and creativity-oriented pedagogies that may better equip young learners with essential cognitive tools for lifelong learning.

6. Recommendations

Teacher Training: Professional development programs should equip educators with origami techniques and digital tool integration (e.g., Paperama) to align with STEAM education trends.

Curriculum Design: Policymakers could incorporate origami-based modules into kindergarten mathematics curricula, emphasizing scaffolded activities that progress from simple folds to complex geometric constructions.

Parental Involvement: Schools might provide take-home origami kits to extend learning beyond the classroom, fostering family engagement in spatial play.

7. Limitations and Future Directions

Sample Size and Generalizability: The study’s sample (N = 60) was relatively modest, homogeneous in socioeconomic background, and drawn from a single geographic region. Consequently, the findings should be interpreted as preliminary and context-bound, offering initial evidence of the potential of origami-based interventions in early childhood education. To strengthen generalizability and confirm long-term effects, future research should replicate this study with larger, more diverse cohorts across varied educational contexts. Additionally, it is important to note that the successful integration of the Paperama digital application may depend on minimum levels of technological infrastructure and teacher readiness, which might not be uniformly available across all kindergarten settings.

Long-Term Retention: This study measured outcomes immediately after the intervention period; therefore, it remains unclear whether the observed gains in geometric understanding and creative thinking will persist over time. Longitudinal studies are recommended to assess the durability of these effects and to identify factors that may influence sustained learning outcomes.

Digital vs. Traditional Balance: While the Paperama app effectively enhanced engagement and provided scaffolding, its comparative impact relative to purely hands-on origami activities warrants further investigation. Employing a mixed-methods approach could help explore young children’s preferences, cognitive load differences, and the potential synergy between digital and traditional modes of origami instruction.