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Article

Knowledge About Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Among Kindergarten and Primary School Teachers in Hungary

by
Ágnes Tóth-Szerecz
1,2,*,
Tun Zaw Oo
1,3 and
Melinda Csima
1,3
1
Institute of Education, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
2
Education and Society, Doctoral School of Education, University of Pecs, 7624 Pecs, Hungary
3
MTA-MATE Early Childhood Research Group, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070922
Submission received: 5 June 2025 / Revised: 24 June 2025 / Accepted: 16 July 2025 / Published: 18 July 2025
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

Understanding the students’ Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is crucial for teachers as it significantly impacts their ability to support and manage ADHD students effectively. Thus, this study aimed to investigate ADHD knowledge among kindergarten and primary school teachers (n = 732). The ADHD-related knowledge questionnaire was employed to gather teachers’ required knowledge about ADHD. The findings showed that teachers were knowledgeable in ADHD knowledge, especially its etiology and symptoms. A significant difference was also found between teachers with special education need (SEN) training and those without SEN training. However, there was no significant difference in ADHD knowledge between kindergarten and primary school teachers. Based on the regression analyses, SEN training significantly contributed to the prediction of teachers’ ADHD knowledge acquisition in both kindergarten and primary schools. This study provides valuable insight into ADHD knowledge among kindergarten and primary school teachers, particularly in etiology and symptoms, highlighting gaps in treatment and diagnostic understandings. It also emphasized the importance of SEN training in enhancing teachers’ ADHD knowledge.
Keywords:
teacher; ADHD; knowledge

1. Introduction

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neuropsychiatric conditions worldwide, affecting 5–8% of children (WHO, 2019). Prevalence rates vary widely, from 2.2% to 17.8%, influenced by factors such as gender, age, and diagnostic criteria (Pérez-Crespo et al., 2020). ADHD is considered a hereditary disorder with substantial genetic influences, with heritability ranging from 60% to 90% (Millenet et al., 2013). Genetic factors alone do not influence an individual’s condition. They can interact with environmental exposures, especially in the prenatal period, increasing the risk of ADHD (Fayed et al., 2021; Yadav et al., 2021). Other contributing factors include neurobiological, perinatal, and psychological influences (Fayed et al., 2021). ADHD is a persistent condition of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms that severely affects the individual’s development and functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Vierhile et al., 2017; Bulut, 2005; Ristiyanti et al., 2021), affecting their academic performance, self-esteem, and social interactions (Lasisi et al., 2017). Additionally, ADHD is associated with increased absenteeism and a higher risk of dropping out of school compared to peers without ADHD (Berchiatti et al., 2022).
According to statistical data by the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (KSH, 2024), the presence of children with special educational needs (SEN) in public education institutions in Hungary has increased significantly since the 2000s. In terms of categories, the incidence rates of autism spectrum disorder and severe attention deficit disorder have shown the greatest increase. As a result, teachers involved in integrated education are increasingly likely to encounter children with ADHD, which has made effective cooperation with them a pressing issue. However, the knowledge transfer and methodologies related to the education of children with ADHD are not sufficiently emphasized in teacher training programs. This highlights the importance of assessing their knowledge of ADHD.
Teachers play a critical role in identifying and managing ADHD symptoms in the classroom (Stampoltzis & Antonopoulou, 2013). In this context, numerous studies that have been conducted in recent years assess the teachers’ attitudes and knowledge about children with ADHD (Berchiatti et al., 2022; Fayed et al., 2021; Herrera-Gutiérrez & Martínez-Frutos, 2021; Saad et al., 2022), however, there is currently no available research on this topic in Hungary. Therefore, this study aims to get an idea of the knowledge of professionals working in Hungarian kindergartens and primary schools about children with ADHD, applying the ASKAT research tool.

1.1. Findings from the Review of Previous Literature

The results of previous studies examining teachers’ knowledge of ADHD are inconsistent. While Mohr-Jensen et al. (2019) reported that most teachers possess good general knowledge of ADHD symptoms—correctly identifying them in approximately 79–96% of cases—as well as of its diagnosis, other studies (Bardi et al., 2023; Ohan et al., 2008; Saad et al., 2022) indicate that teachers typically have only a moderate understanding of ADHD, particularly in terms of symptom recognition and diagnostic criteria. Moreover, several studies have highlighted that many teachers have limited knowledge of ADHD, especially in areas such as its etiology and treatment (Bardi et al., 2023; Rodrigo et al., 2011; Stampoltzis & Antonopoulou, 2013; Saad et al., 2022; Abouammoh et al., 2023).
Teachers acquire information about ADHD from various sources, including educational workshops, social media, friends and relatives, TV and radio, scientific journals, and other sources like the Internet and personal experiences (Saad et al., 2022). However, special education needs training programs are essential for teachers to acquire knowledge about ADHD, including its symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment (Dessie et al., 2021). Primary school teachers are more likely to have received training on ADHD compared to kindergarten teachers (Awadalla et al., 2016; See et al., 2021), which significantly improves their knowledge about ADHD (Awadalla et al., 2016; Saad et al., 2022). Despite having more knowledge, primary school teachers still exhibit gaps, particularly in understanding the etiology and treatment of ADHD. This suggests that while they may be better informed than kindergarten teachers, there is still room for improvement (Herrera-Gutiérrez & Martínez-Frutos, 2021; Saad et al., 2022). Studies have indicated that training programs have been shown to significantly improve teachers’ knowledge and attitudes towards ADHD, indicating that continuous professional development is essential (Lasisi et al., 2017). This training helps them implement effective behavior modification techniques and create a conducive learning environment (Melhem, 2020; Poznanski et al., 2021). The training programs improve teachers’ ability to identify and assess ADHD symptoms early, which is critical for timely intervention (Awadalla et al., 2016). Moreover, Kikas and Timoštšuk (2016) also stated that knowledge gained from SEN training reduces teachers’ anxiety and negative emotions associated with managing ADHD students, thereby improving their confidence and overall teaching experience. Teachers who completed courses related to teaching neurodivergent children were more confident and had better mental health (Terlich et al., 2024). Therefore, it can be seen clearly that teachers’ knowledge about ADHD and their related training are crucial for students’ development and the creation of a better classroom environment. In addition, it is important to consider that many children with ADHD have negative social experiences with their classmates or even with their teachers (Mikami & Miller, 2024). This further increases the importance of teachers in integration.
A review of previous studies revealed notable differences in teachers’ knowledge of ADHD based on teaching level (kindergarten or primary school teachers), gender, age, teaching experience, and educational qualifications. Primary school teachers generally have more knowledge about ADHD compared to kindergarten teachers (Awadalla et al., 2016; See et al., 2021). Considering gender differences in ADHD knowledge among teachers, female teachers scored higher on ADHD knowledge, particularly in understanding symptoms and diagnostic criteria (Herrera-Gutiérrez & Martínez-Frutos, 2021). Female teachers are more adept at recognizing ADHD symptoms and are more likely to agree on the need for interventions such as medication, especially, for inattentive subtypes (Moldavsky et al., 2013). Regarding teaching experiences, teachers with more years of experience (medium and high) tend to have better knowledge about ADHD symptoms and diagnosis compared to those with fewer years of experience (Kos et al., 2004). However, in one study (Anderson et al., 2012), there is no significant difference in knowledge about the causes of ADHD across different experience levels. In general knowledge levels, in-service teachers generally have more knowledge about ADHD compared to pre-service teaching, indicating that experience plays a role in increasing ADHD knowledge. Teachers with professional experience in dealing with ADHD tend to have superior knowledge compared to those without such experience (Abouammoh et al., 2023). Teachers who have received postgraduate education specifically about ADHD tend to have better knowledge about the disorder (Mohr-Jensen et al., 2019).
Teachers’ knowledge of ADHD is significantly influenced by their training and professional experience rather than their degree level (Herrera-Gutiérrez & Martínez-Frutos, 2021). Teachers who have received formal, non-formal, or informal training in ADHD tend to have better knowledge and self-efficacy in teaching children with ADHD (Aguiar et al., 2014). This is clearly shown by the fact that school psychologists and special education teachers are more familiar with ADHD (Cueli et al., 2024).
Teachers’ knowledge about ADHD was positively correlated with their general or previous experience with ADHD children, emphasizing the significance of practical experience in enhancing knowledge (See et al., 2021). Teachers’ perceived knowledge about ADHD was also found to be connected to their sociodemographic characteristics and their self-assessment of their general knowledge about ADHD (Mihić et al., 2021). Teachers’ experience with ADHD children was positively correlated with their higher knowledge levels in symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment (Abouammoh et al., 2023).
Several studies have shown the determinants or predictors of teachers’ ADHD knowledge. Muanprasart et al. (2014) and Grigoropoulos (2023) stated that teachers’ age (especially, younger teachers) and those familiar with ADHD patients have better knowledge of ADHD children. Gender and teaching positions also play a role, with female teachers and primary school teachers generally having higher knowledge levels of ADHD (See et al., 2021; Herrera-Gutiérrez & Martínez-Frutos, 2021). Teachers with more years of experience working with hyperactive children and those who have had more hyperactive pupils in their classrooms show higher knowledge levels, especially regarding symptoms and diagnosis (Fernández et al., 2007).

1.2. Study Context and Rationale

In public educational institutions, inclusion efforts are increasingly accompanied by the integration of children with special needs. In Hungary, this includes children with special educational needs (SEN) as defined under national educational standards. The success of inclusive education for children with SEN is influenced by multiple factors. Among these, institutional resources—both human and material—play a crucial role. One significant subjective factor is the knowledge of teachers and peers within the host institution about the students with SEN. Research in both international and Hungarian contexts indicates that teachers generally consider physical and sensory disabilities to be most suitable for inclusion in integrated educational settings (Ouellette-Kuntz et al., 2010; Firat & Koyuncu, 2022; Szekeres & Szenczi, 2022).
The OECD categorizes special educational needs into three primary classifications: severe disabilities, difficulties, and handicaps. In Hungary, SEN classification is determined primarily by the etiology of the condition, though treatment and support are adapted dynamically based on the educational setting (OECD, 2019). According to Hungary’s Public Education Art, ADHD is classified among mental development disorders under SEN. Although ADHD support programs have been in place in Hungary for approximately 20 years, they continue to face challenges, particularly in terms of limited capacity and the need for further program development (Kilencz et al., 2024).
Given this background, the current study aims to evaluate teachers’ knowledge of ADHD children from kindergartens and primary schools. Based on this aim, the following questions are addressed in this study:
  • RQ1: What are the levels of Hungarian teachers’ ADHD knowledge?
  • RQ2: What factors account for differences in teachers’ knowledge of ADHD?
  • RQ3: What factors predict the development of ADHD knowledge in kindergarten and primary school teachers?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

In our cross-sectional quantitative research, Hungarian teachers’ knowledge towards children with ADHD behavior were assessed. The survey tool was created by translating Mulholland’s (2016) ASKAT questionnaire into Hungarian. Based on the national database available at the Hungarian Education Office, all Hungarian kindergarten and primary school heads received the online questionnaire by e-mail, asking them to share it with their work teams. The research plan and the questionnaire submitted as part of the research plan have been approved by the Scientific and Research Ethics Committee of Institute of Education, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences. The respondents were kindergarten teachers and primary school teachers working in the field of education in Hungarian kindergartens and primary schools. The response was anonymous and voluntary. A total of 732 teachers participated in the survey, 696 women and 36 men. The average age of the respondents is 49.31 years (SD 8.93), with the youngest respondent being 23 and the oldest 68. The participants’ characteristics are shown in Table 1.

2.2. Instrument

In our study, a questionnaire with ADHD-related knowledge (Mulholland, 2016) was employed to assess teachers’ ADHD knowledge. In the questionnaire, teachers’ four main types of knowledge (knowledge of etiology, knowledge of symptoms, knowledge of treatment, and knowledge of diagnostics/prevalence) were evaluated. The original questionnaire had 20 items. However, for the use of a different context, after running the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), only 19 items were left. One item was deleted for its lower factor loading. The Cronbach’s alpha for the full questionnaire is 0.819. For clarity, some example items are presented from each domain of ADHD knowledge assessment (Etiology: ADHD is caused by too much sugar in the diet; Symptoms: Children with ADHD usually have poor concentration; Treatment: ADHD is a neurobiological, developmental disorder; and Diagnostics/prevalence: Children with ADHD benefit from stricter parenting and preschool/school education).

2.3. Analysis

First, our study confirmed the construct validity of the instrument in terms of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. In the use of CFA, Kline (2015) suggested that non-significant chi-square (χ2) and positive degrees of freedom (df) (one or above) should be used to indicate a good fit. The following goodness-of-fit indices were employed to evaluate model fit: goodness-of-fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The values for CFI and GFI range from 0 to 1, and larger values confirm a better fit. Values larger than 0.90 show an acceptable model fit. The RMSEA also indicates a model fit and ranges from 0 to 1, but values of 0.08 or less show a good model fit (Józsa et al., 2023). In this model, χ2 describes the distance between the model and the data, but it depends on the sample size: df describes the difference between the number of data points and parameter numbers to be estimated; GFI describes the minimum discrepancy function for the perfect fit; CFI describes the power of the model compared to a situation without the model; and RMSEA describes how much error or unexplained variance remains after applying the model (Kline, 2015). Therefore, the items and factors are closely related to one another for developing a good construct for the ADHD questionnaire.

3. Results

3.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

In the study, the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was first conducted to explore the factors categorizing teachers’ ADHD knowledge. The EFA indicates that the questionnaire was capable of measuring key factors of teachers’ knowledge, such as etiology, symptoms, treatment, and diagnostics/prevalence. Out of 20 items from the original questionnaire, one item “Special diets (e.g., reduced sugar, wheat, lactose, additive-free) are an effective treatment for ADHD,” was suppressed due to its low factor loading (Oo et al., 2023). After removing that one item, there was a total of 19 items left in the questionnaire; etiology (8 items), symptoms (4 items), treatment (4 items), and diagnostics/prevalence (3 items) (Table 2). The communality values ranged from moderate (0.327) to high (0.692), representing the relation between the variable and all other variables.

3.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

To investigate how closely the separated factors (etiology, symptoms, treatment, and diagnostics/prevalence) are related to one another, the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was run after the EFA. The CFA model (Figure 1) was well-fitted with the acceptable fit indices, such as Chi-square = 289.13, the degrees of freedom, df = 146, probability value, p < 0.001, comparative fit index, CFI = 0.948, Tucker Lewis index, TLI = 0.939, root mean square error of approximation, RMSEA = 0.037, standardized root mean square residual, SRMR = 0.033 (Liu et al., 2020). Therefore, in measuring teachers’ ADHD knowledge, it was found that the factors were closely related to one another and to items that belonged to their relevant factors of measurement in ADHD knowledge.

3.3. Characteristics of Knowledge Related to ADHD

The authors categorized respondents’ scores on the knowledge test, with scores above 85% being considered excellent, 50–85% adequate, and below 50% inadequate (Mulholland, 2016). Regarding the total number of correct answers, only 6.3% of Hungarian teachers’ knowledge is excellent, 82.6% is adequate, and 11.1% is inadequate. For all the correct answers, 68.75% (SD 17, 15) of the respondents scored in the adequate knowledge category. The most unfavorable result was 0%, in which case the percentage of not knowing answers was high during the completion of the questionnaire. The highest score for completers was 95%, achieved by 13. The median was 70% and the standard deviation was 17.15%.
Out of the four types of ADHD knowledge, it was found that Hungarian teachers’ knowledge was excellent and adequate in knowledge of etiology and symptoms due to the fact that their inadequate percentages were low; 35.3% and 5.9%. However, in the assessment of ADHD knowledge in treatment and diagnostics/prevalence, teachers’ knowledge was mostly inadequate because of their high percentages of inadequacy; 54.3% and 66.5%. Therefore, it can be seen that Hungarian teachers were knowledgeable in the etiology and symptoms of ADHD despite less knowledge of treatment and diagnostics/prevalence (Table 3).

3.4. Comparison of the ADHD Knowledge

The study compared the overall teachers’ ADHD knowledge across teacher types, SEN training, and teaching experiences. Their differences were presented in Table 4. In the comparison of teachers’ overall ADHD knowledge across teacher types, no significant difference was found. Similarly, there was no significant difference in the comparison of ADHD knowledge across teaching experiences. However, SEN training was meaningful for teachers’ ADHD knowledge acquisition because teachers with SEN training showed (M = 1.39, SD = 0.48, p < 0.001, d = 0.40) significantly higher ADHD knowledge than those without SEN training (M = 1.22, SD = 0.36). The comparison of specific domains of ADHD knowledge among these groups of teachers is shown in the subsequent sections.

3.4.1. Across Teacher Types

ANOVA analysis was conducted to compare ADHD knowledge across ADHD knowledge between kindergarten teachers and primary school teachers (Figure 2). No significant difference (p > 0.05) was found for all comparisons of ADHD knowledge; etiology (MKindergarten = 1.11, SD = 0.36; MPrimary = 1.34, SD = 0.44), symptoms (MKindergarten = 1.42, SD = 0.59; MPrimary = 1.41, SD = 0.63), treatment (MKindergarten = 1.48, SD = 0.67; MPrimary = 1.42, SD = 0.65), diagnostics/prevalence (MKindergarten = 1.32, SD = 0.64; MPrimary = 1.25, SD = 0.75). Therefore, it was found that the ADHD knowledge of kindergarten teachers and primary school teachers is at almost the same level.

3.4.2. Across the SEN Training

A significant difference (p < 0.05) was found between teachers regarding the overall assessment of ADHD knowledge across teachers with SEN training (Mwith SEN = 1.37, SD = 0.48) and without SEN training (Mwithout SEN = 1.21, SD = 0.37). ANOVA analysis also showed significant differences in teachers’ ADHD knowledge development across four factors (knowledge of etiology, knowledge of symptoms, knowledge of treatment, and knowledge of diagnostics/prevalence) between teachers with SEN training and those without SEN training (Figure 3). These findings showed that SEN training is important for the development of teachers’ ADHD knowledge.

3.4.3. Across Teaching Experience

Based on teachers’ experiences (low, medium, and high) in teaching children with ADHD, the authors also compared teachers’ ADHD knowledge development. The Post Hoc results showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) for the overall comparison of teachers’ ADHD knowledge development across teachers with different teaching experiences (Mlow-experience = 1.28, SD = 0.43; Mmedium-experience = 1.28, SD = 0.43; and Mhigh-experience = 1.27, SD = 0.39). Moreover, no significant differences were found in teachers’ ADHD knowledge for all factors (knowledge of etiology, knowledge of symptoms, knowledge of treatments, and knowledge of diagnostics/prevalence) across teachers with different teaching experiences (Figure 4).

3.5. Relationship Between Teachers’ Demographic Variables and ADHD Knowledge

The correlational analysis investigated the relationships between teachers’ demographic variables (age, educational qualification, SEN training, teaching experience) and their ADHD knowledge (symptoms, etiology, treatment, diagnostics/prevalence). The upper triangle of Table 5 represents the relationships between primary school teachers’ ADHD knowledge and their demographic variables, and the lower triangle represents the kindergarten teachers’ relationships. In the case of primary school teachers, it was found that SEN training had significant relationships with teachers’ ADHD knowledge, although other variables such as age, qualification, and experience had no significant correlation with their ADHD knowledge. Similarly, in the case of kindergarten teachers, SEN training had significant relationships with teachers’ ADHD knowledge, except for diagnostics/prevalence knowledge.

3.6. Predictors of ADHD Knowledge for Kindergarten Teachers

As ADHD knowledge is important for kindergarten teachers’ effective teaching of ADHD children, the predictors of ADHD knowledge are also explored considering their demographic backgrounds. Kindergarten teachers’ gender, age, qualifications, experiences, and SEN training are expected as predictors and the authors conducted the regression or prediction model for the kindergarten teachers. The model showed a good fit with acceptable fit indices, such as Chi-square = 298.47, df = 26, p < 0.05, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.02, and SRMR = 0.032, with the prediction percent, 35% (R2 = 0.35). Out of these five predictors, only teachers’ gender, their educational qualification, and their SEN training proved as significant predictors of their ADHD knowledge development. To be specific, gender has significant predicting effects on teachers’ etiology knowledge (β = 0.27, p < 0.05) and treatment knowledge (β = 0.11, p < 0.05); teachers’ educational qualification has a predicting effect on just treatment knowledge (β = −0.15, p < 0.05); and SEN training has two predicting effects on teachers’ knowledge of ADHD symptoms (β = 0.14, p < 0.05) and treatment (β = 0.13, p < 0.05). Age and teaching experiences were not found significant in the prediction model of kindergarten teachers (Figure 5), meaning that their differences in age and teaching experiences cannot influence their ADHD knowledge development.

3.7. Predictors of ADHD Knowledge for Primary School Teachers

Similarly, predictors of ADHD knowledge for primary school teachers were also explored by considering their demographic background (Figure 6). The five expected predictors are gender, age, educational qualifications, teaching experiences, and SEN training. The prediction model showed a good fit with (R2 = 0.27) based on the recommended fit indices, such as Chi-square = 448.45, df = 26, p < 0.05, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.02, and SRMR = 0.032. Out of these five predictors, only gender and SEN training have significant predicting effects on primary school teachers’ ADHD knowledge development. Specifically, despite gender having a significant predicting effect on teachers’ etiology knowledge (β = 0.10, p < 0.05), SEN training has significant predicting effects on all types of ADHD knowledge (β = 0.23 on the etiology knowledge, β = 0.17 on the symptoms knowledge, β = 0.20 on the treatment knowledge, and β = 0.16 on the knowledge of diagnostics/prevalence, p < 0.05). However, teachers’ age, educational qualifications, and teaching experiences have no significant predicting effects on their knowledge development about ADHD children.

4. Discussion

This study examined Hungarian teachers’ knowledge of ADHD, focusing on specific areas of knowledge—etiology, symptoms, treatment, and diagnostics/prevalence. It analyzed if there were any significant differences across teachers, SEN training, and teaching experiences, and how demographic factors and training experiences related to this knowledge. The study first confirmed the psychometric properties of the instrument assessing teachers’ ADHD knowledge.
The findings indicate that Hungarian teachers exhibit strong knowledge in the areas of ADHD etiology and symptoms, with a majority of respondents scoring within the adequate or excellent knowledge categories. This outcome aligns with prior research highlighting that teachers are often more knowledgeable in recognizing ADHD symptoms than in understanding its causes and treatments (Bardi et al., 2023; Saad et al., 2022). Notably, as observed by Mohr-Jensen et al. (2019), most teachers can accurately identify ADHD symptoms, which is critical given that symptom recognition is essential for early identification and intervention. However, this study reveals a significant gap in teachers’ understanding of treatment and diagnostics/prevalence knowledge, with over half of the respondents scoring in the inadequate range for these categories. This is consistent with findings by Herrera-Gutiérrez and Martínez-Frutos (2021), who reported that while teachers generally recognize ADHD symptoms, they frequently lack knowledge of effective treatments and diagnostic criteria. This knowledge gap may stem from limited formal training in ADHD diagnostics and treatment options within standard teacher training curricula, as suggested by multiple studies (Perold et al., 2010; Stampoltzis & Antonopoulou, 2013). The lower familiarity with diagnostic and treatment knowledge may also reflect the complexity of these areas, which often require specialized training (Ahmann et al., 2020).
In the comparison across teacher types, the study found no significant differences in ADHD knowledge between kindergarten and primary school teachers, suggesting that both groups have similar levels of understanding across ADHD knowledge domains. This finding is different from previous studies, such as Awadalla et al. (2016) and See et al. (2021), which showed that primary school teachers generally possess more knowledge of ADHD, likely due to increased exposure to ADHD cases in classroom settings and greater access to professional development opportunities for ADHD. In the comparison of ADHD knowledge across SEN training, teachers with SEN training demonstrated significantly higher knowledge of ADHD across all four knowledge domains, highlighting the value of SEN training in fostering a comprehensive understanding of ADHD. These results align with numerous studies indicating that teachers with SEN training exhibit higher competence and confidence in managing ADHD in classrooms (Poznanski et al., 2021; Kikas & Timoštšuk, 2016). SEN training programs provide targeted strategies for recognizing symptoms, implementing behavior management techniques, and understanding treatment options (Aguiar et al., 2014). This finding encourages the need to incorporate SEN components into teacher training as a standard feature, as SEN training is shown to significantly improve teachers’ knowledge, self-efficacy, and ability to manage diverse classroom needs (Dessie et al., 2021; Lasisi et al., 2017).
Contrary to some studies suggesting that teachers with more experience have better ADHD knowledge (Kos et al., 2004), this study found no significant relationship between years of teaching experience and ADHD knowledge across all domains. This result may imply that experience alone does not significantly improve ADHD knowledge unless supplemented by continuous professional development. Similar findings were observed by Anderson et al. (2012), where experience did not necessarily correlate with knowledge of ADHD etiology or treatment. This finding indicates that practical experience with ADHD students may not be enough to fill specific knowledge gaps in diagnostic and treatment knowledge, areas that require formal and structured training.
The regression analysis for predictors of ADHD knowledge revealed significant roles for gender, educational qualifications, and SEN training. Female teachers demonstrated higher knowledge in the etiology and treatment aspects of ADHD, which aligns with studies that suggest female teachers are often more knowledgeable about ADHD symptoms and treatments (Herrera-Gutiérrez & Martínez-Frutos, 2021; Moldavsky et al., 2013). This difference might be due to the greater empathy and responsiveness reported among female teachers in managing behavioral disorders, as well as their likelihood to pursue SEN training opportunities. Moreover, SEN training emerged as a consistent predictor of ADHD knowledge for both kindergarten and primary school teachers. This result is consistent with findings by Aguiar et al. (2014) and Poznanski et al. (2021), who highlighted that SEN training leads to greater competence in managing ADHD-related challenges. However, age and teaching experience did not significantly predict ADHD knowledge, diverging from a study such as Muanprasart et al. (2014), which found that younger teachers often have better knowledge, especially about treatment. This difference may be due to the educational context of Hungary, where teacher education and professional development may not vary significantly by age or teaching experience.

5. Limitation

As a limitation, the sampling covered all basic education institutions in Hungary; however, the willingness to participate is low. Another limitation is the use of self-reported data, which may be subject to social desirability bias and varying interpretations of questionnaire items, potentially affecting the accuracy of responses. Furthermore, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences, limiting the findings to primarily correlational interpretations. Moreover, the study focused only on teachers’ knowledge, but their attitudes or beliefs about ADHD can also significantly impact the comparisons of kindergarten and preschool teachers. Future research could explore the relationship between knowledge, attitudes, and practical classroom strategies.

6. Conclusions

This study investigated the ADHD knowledge of kindergarten and primary school teachers, noting that ADHD knowledge among all teachers is highly variable across etiology and symptom domains. However, the teachers were weak in knowledge about the treatment and diagnostics/prevalence domains of ADHD knowledge. The findings also showed significant differences in teachers’ ADHD knowledge across teachers with and without SEN training. However, no significant differences were found in ADHD knowledge between kindergarten and primary school teachers, and among low, medium, and high experienced teachers. The SEN training was found as a crucial factor in the acquisition of teachers’ ADHD knowledge. Specifically, gender and the SEN training were significant predictors of the development of teachers’ ADHD knowledge.
As for implications, these findings suggest that educational policymakers and school administrators should focus on continuous training opportunities for teachers in kindergarten and primary schools. Moreover, the treatment and diagnostics/prevalence aspects should be more emphasized in these trainings to provide teachers with well-organized training programs. Future research could explore the longitudinal impacts of SEN training on ADHD knowledge retention and the application of knowledge in real classroom settings to strengthen and sustain teachers’ ADHD competencies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Á.T.-S. and M.C.; methodology, Á.T.-S. and M.C.; investigation, Á.T.-S. and M.C.; data curation, T.Z.O.; data analysis, T.Z.O.; writing—original draft preparation, Á.T.-S., T.Z.O. and M.C.; writing—review and editing, Á.T.-S., T.Z.O. and M.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Scientific Foundations of Education Research Program of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences [(SZKF-10/2021)].

Institutional Review Board Statement

The research was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Helsinki Declaration. The study was approved by the Scientific and Research Ethics Committee of the Institute of Education, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences. The authorization number is 2/2023-NI. The ethical permission was issued on 10 November 2023.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in this study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author to protect the data privacy and restrict unauthorized use.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Education 15 00922 g001
Figure 1. CFA model for the instrument of ADHD knowledge. Note: F1 (Symptoms), F2 (Etiology), F3 (Treatment), and F4 (Diagnostics/treatment).
Figure 1. CFA model for the instrument of ADHD knowledge. Note: F1 (Symptoms), F2 (Etiology), F3 (Treatment), and F4 (Diagnostics/treatment).
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Figure 2. Comparing teachers’ ADHD knowledge between kindergarten and primary school teachers.
Figure 2. Comparing teachers’ ADHD knowledge between kindergarten and primary school teachers.
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Figure 3. Comparing teachers’ ADHD knowledge between teachers with SEN training and those without SEN training.
Figure 3. Comparing teachers’ ADHD knowledge between teachers with SEN training and those without SEN training.
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Figure 4. Comparing teachers’ ADHD knowledge across teachers with different teaching experiences (low, medium, and high).
Figure 4. Comparing teachers’ ADHD knowledge across teachers with different teaching experiences (low, medium, and high).
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Figure 5. Predictors of kindergarten teachers’ ADHD knowledge development.
Figure 5. Predictors of kindergarten teachers’ ADHD knowledge development.
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Figure 6. Predictors of primary school teachers’ ADHD knowledge development.
Figure 6. Predictors of primary school teachers’ ADHD knowledge development.
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Table 1. Characteristics of participants.
Table 1. Characteristics of participants.
CharacteristicsFrequency (n)
Teacher
  Kindergarten teachers342
  Primary school teachers390
Gender
  Male36
  Female696
Training
  With SEN training484
  Without SEN training248
Teaching experience
  Low (less than 15 years)190
  Medium (15 years to 30 years)285
  High (greater than 30 years)257
Educational qualification
  Higher vocational training5
  BA546
  MA181
Total732
Table 2. Exploratory Factor Analysis for the Knowledge Questionnaire.
Table 2. Exploratory Factor Analysis for the Knowledge Questionnaire.
No.ItemsFactors/Components
SymptomsEtiologyTreatmentDiagnostics/Prevalence
7Children with ADHD may also show hyperactive behavior, inattention or a combination of these.0.783
16Children with ADHD often have problems concentrating during activities at the desk.0.636
11Children with hyperactive ADHD often talk too much and find it hard to stay in their seats.0.623
8Children with ADHD are easily distracted.0.62
3Children with ADHD usually have poor concentration.0.606
14Some children may exhibit inattentive or hyperactive behavior, but do not meet the criteria for an ADHD diagnosis.0.545
20Most often, teachers are the first to notice ADHD- related behavior and send children for testing.0.544
17Children with ADHD often do not pay enough attention to their activities/work and make careless mistakes0.533
10ADHD is caused by too much sugar in the diet. 0.61
12ADHD is caused by bad parenting. 0.591
6ADHD is hereditary. 0.544
13Children with ADHD may choose to behave better. 0.448
1ADHD is a neurobiological developmental disorder. 0.988
19The cause of ADHD is unknown. 0.611
4The combination of stimulant medication and behavioral therapies is effective in the treatment of ADHD. 0.543
5There are different subtypes of ADHD, which can present with different behaviors. 0.467
15There is at least 1 child in each group/class who exhibits ADHD-related behavior. 0.703
9Children with ADHD benefit from stricter parenting and preschool/school education. 0.595
18Regardless of ADHD diagnosis, children with ADHD may benefit from individualized behavior management strategies. 0.552
Note: Factor loading lower than 0.40 was suppressed.
Table 3. Percentages of teachers’ responses to the ADHD knowledge.
Table 3. Percentages of teachers’ responses to the ADHD knowledge.
ADHD KnowledgePercentages
Knowledge of etiology
  Excellent5.3%
  Adequate58.4%
  Inadequate35.3%
Knowledge of symptoms
  Excellent63.8%
  Adequate30.2%
  Inadequate5.9%
Knowledge of treatment
  Excellent7.8%
  Adequate37.9%
  Inadequate54.3%
Knowledge of diagnostics and prevalence
  Excellent33.5%
  Adequate0%
  Inadequate66.5%
Total
  Excellent6.3%
  Adequate82.6%
  Inadequate11.1%
Table 4. Comparisons of teachers’ overall ADHD knowledge.
Table 4. Comparisons of teachers’ overall ADHD knowledge.
GroupsVariablesNumbersMean (SD)t and F Valuesp-ValueEffect Size
Cohen’s d and η2
Teacher typesKindergarten teachers3421.28 (0.38)0.3790.705d = 0.02
(low)
Primary school teachers3901.27 (0.45)
SEN trainingNo2481.22 (0.36)−5.5790.000d = 0.40
(Medium)
Yes4841.39 (0.48)
Teaching experiencesLow1901.28 (0.43)0.0030.997η2 = 0.000
(very low)
Medium2851.28 (0.43)
High2571.27 (0.39)
Note: Cohen’s d = 0.20 (small), d = 0.40 (medium), d = 0.80 (large); η2 ≥ 0.01 (small), η2 ≥ 0.06 (medium), η2 ≥ 0.14 (large) (Oo et al., 2023).
Table 5. Correlations between teachers’ demographic variables and ADHD knowledge.
Table 5. Correlations between teachers’ demographic variables and ADHD knowledge.
VariablesPrimary School Teachers
12345678
Kindergarten teachers1. Age----−0.0200.0840.083−0.025
2. Qualification----0.055−0.020−0.0170.030
3. SEN----0.227 **0.142 **0.174 **0.157 **
4. Experience----−0.0390.0540.076−0.025
5. Symptoms−0.126 *0.0290.135 *−0.089-0.505 **0.570 **0.455 **
6. Etiology0.049−0.0150.122 *0.0200.431 **-0.431 **0.372 **
7. Treatment0.059−0.158 **0.128 *−0.0100.385 **0.441 **-0.376 **
8. Diagnostics/prevalence0.014−0.0010.0810.0260.331 **0.331 **0.299 **-
Note: ** (p < 0.01), * (p < 0.05).
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Tóth-Szerecz, Á.; Oo, T.Z.; Csima, M. Knowledge About Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Among Kindergarten and Primary School Teachers in Hungary. Educ. Sci. 2025, 15, 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070922

AMA Style

Tóth-Szerecz Á, Oo TZ, Csima M. Knowledge About Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Among Kindergarten and Primary School Teachers in Hungary. Education Sciences. 2025; 15(7):922. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070922

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tóth-Szerecz, Ágnes, Tun Zaw Oo, and Melinda Csima. 2025. "Knowledge About Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Among Kindergarten and Primary School Teachers in Hungary" Education Sciences 15, no. 7: 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070922

APA Style

Tóth-Szerecz, Á., Oo, T. Z., & Csima, M. (2025). Knowledge About Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Among Kindergarten and Primary School Teachers in Hungary. Education Sciences, 15(7), 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070922

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