Integrating International Foodways and the Dominant Language Constellation Approach in Language Studies

Abstract

People in multilingual societies develop complex and interconnected food-making and food-discussing networks. On the basis of an experimental course titled “Food at Home, Food on the Move: Globalization and Regionalism in Modern Food Culture” taught at the University of Helsinki, we will show how the acquisition of culinary terminology puts forward the interconnectedness of languages and the dynamics between them in several sociolinguistic contexts. The lectures were grouped geographically: Eating with the Neighbors (Finnish cuisine and Swedish, Russian, Karelian and other influences); From the Baltic to Central Europe (Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, German, and Hungarian food cultures); Formative Cuisines of the Mediterranean (French, Italian, Greek, Middle Eastern cuisine, etc.); and Eating Outside Europe (food culture influences from the US, Mexico, China, Japan, and India). The assignments included a critical lecture diary, an essay about eating experiences, or additional reading, a conversational analysis of a culinary show, or fieldwork in an ethnic restaurant. Raising awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity, motivating course participants to discuss the role and interaction of languages in their repertoire, makes them reflect on their multilingual identities. It allows educators to explore individuals’ DLCs in different contexts while navigating diverse global and local environments based on the principles of fairness and equality in education.

1. Introduction

Acknowledging the rich tapestry of languages in society is a prevalent focus of contemporary multilingualism research. However, scholars highlight the significant hierarchy present in the perceived value of different languages, both in educational settings and in communities. The dominant language constellation (DLC) perspective offers a departure from this hierarchy, as it does not inherently prioritize one language over others in any configuration. The DLC concept, introduced by Larissa Aronin (2006, 2016), represents a cluster of languages serving essential communication functions for individuals or communities. While multilinguals may command several languages, a DLC typically comprises the most actively used three languages, often including a local, official, and international language. In diverse contexts where numerous languages are spoken, individuals use multiple DLCs across the personal, communal, and national levels (Lo Bianco & Aronin, 2020). The multimodality of DLC can be considered not only in linguistic or cultural terms but also in terms of the material cultures associated with given languages (Aronin, 2020; Knappett, 2005; Malafouris, 2010, 2013).

DLCs form cohesive language units, evolving dynamically through interaction among the constituent languages. DLC maps visually depict language usage within both individual repertoires and DLC clusters. Adaptable to changing circumstances, DLCs may shift as life events prompt the activation or deactivation of languages within the constellation. This natural multilingual dynamic involves the reassignment of language functions and the continual evolution of language proficiency and usage. While a DLC lacks an inherent hierarchy, it does not imply equal roles, usage time, or emotional attachment for each language within it. Rather, the languages within a DLC fulfill different roles and carry varying weights based on factors such as proficiency, usage time, and emotional connection. The arrangement of languages within a DLC is determined by the current needs and situations, rather than an arbitrary categorization.

A DLC is a multimodal unit as it includes not only purely linguistic features but also the ones associated with language-related cultures and materialities. Food, in turn, is highly relevant to culture, lifestyle, and materiality (Aronin, 2022; Aronin & Melo-Pfeifer, 2023). We focus on analyzing the relationships between various languages spoken by individuals and eating habits within communities, highlighting the dominant or influential languages within these constellations (Protassova & Yelenevskaya, 2022, 2023). In this article, we consider both linguistic and material aspects of the DLC in their unity. Postcolonial and feminist studies also have a role in these explorations (Janer, 2007; Park et al., 2015; Sachdeva & Rani, 2025). During the course, our students researched culinary concepts and their influence on human life both at home and abroad. They revised their perception of “otherness” and learned to identify and analyze food patterns and the role they play in our times (Laudan, 2013; Reid et al., 2023; Szatrowski, 2014). They also had an opportunity to taste different “national” and “fusion” dishes and analyze how emotionality, history, and migration are linked to language and culture practices. The learning activities we developed during the period 2017–2023 are easily transferable to various educational contexts, like schools, universities, and immigrant integration courses, that are associated with various DLCs and allow for reassessment of the linguistic needs in specific contexts (cf. Grigorieva, 2012).

In various communities, children’s access to diverse food is determined not only by family income but also by traditions (Knight et al., 2014; Norman, 2012; von Essen & Mårtensson, 2017). Taste, smell, evaluative–emotional vocabulary, and perceptions of delicious and healthy food are formed accordingly. It is reasonable to assume that as individuals explore the world of food, their personality gradually develops. Memories of childhood meals and food experienced during travels become treasures of personal experience, serving as both benchmarks of excellence and markers of the dreadful (Bishop, 2023; Lin & Mao, 2015; Neuman et al., 2021; Shakeshaft & Vincis, 2020). The status of individual memories in relation to the social–historical construction and narration of shared memories in oral history raises questions about the dangers of uncritically accepting collective discourses. Yet alternative approaches to examining individual and collective memories can be explored without overly simplistic cultural–historical explanations, suggesting that rejecting “collective” memory does not necessitate reducing remembering to a study of individual consciousness or unconsciousness (Smith, 2007).

Cultural blending is becoming common in everyday family life, putting traditional home-cooked food at risk (Alymbaeva, 2017; West et al., 2017). Bicultural food habits highlight the way immigrants navigate their sense of belonging, balancing integration and separation in their relationships with the host society. Nevertheless, individuals continue to connect their past eating experiences with specific events and their former identities, and taste memories of meals cooked by mothers and grandmothers often conflict with contemporary culinary options (Grosjean, 2015; Waxmann, 2008).

Mastery of culinary terminology begins in childhood. Each word carries a synesthetic perception of food. Dietary standards are often threatened when a person relocates and cannot recreate a favorite dish with new ingredients. Specific methods of measuring ingredients, naming processing techniques, degrees of doneness, and more are all learned through hands-on experience in the kitchen. Immersion in a different language involves mastering this crucial aspect of terminology (Gerhardt et al., 2018; Lehrer, 1972; Norrick, 2000; Riley & Paugh, 2018).

This article emphasizes the value and flexibility of the DLC theory in education and contains recommendations on how to design, structure, and implement a course or a teaching module, connecting the study of different food practices with language and culture learning (cf. Bonnet & Siemund, 2018; Pavlovskaya, 2021). The learning activities described and analyzed in this article will help teachers adapt materials we have developed to the needs of the specific contexts of their institutions. Social workers may profit from our experience of displaying and discussing food practices as a way of alerting students to the value of multilingualism and multiculturalism and in developing their tolerance to contact cultures. Finally, immigrant families will be able to use our teaching methods to help children develop culinary vocabulary in the dominant and non-dominant languages of their DLC while learning how to cook their favorite dishes. This may contribute to home language maintenance, as well as to acceptance of and pride in one’s cultural hybridity in the light of linguistic anthropology (Crowther, 2013; Uusihakala & Eräsaari, 2016).

The research question is geared toward analyzing the way students integrate their understanding of lectures with their own experiences, the experiences of others, their impressions, and academic articles. It also seeks to explore what kind of research they can conduct and present based on their acquired knowledge and awareness of their own competence.

2. Research Context

The course title was Food at Home, Food on the Move: Globalization and Regionalism in Modern Food Culture; the target group was MA students in the humanities; and interested BA students were welcome as well as staff members. The course was registered and could be accessed online afterwards. About 80 people in total took the course; they were of different ages and spoke a variety of home languages. Most participants were from Finland but also had international experience. It is important to note here that at the end of 2024, there were 10.8% of Finnish inhabitants whose home language was not Finnish, Swedish or Sami (Population Structure, 2025). Several participants in the course were international students studying at the University of Helsinki. Students earned five credits by learning to evaluate and analyze modern food culture theories, as well as to identify and interpret various food practices and their interconnections. They also gained practical knowledge of ethnic foodways and applied this to developing their own conclusions on the subject. Lectures were given by interdisciplinary teachers from various departments and there were also invited lecturers from Finland and abroad not connected to the University of Helsinki. Students’ lecture diary contained reflections connecting major/minor subjects to food culture, experiences of eating abroad, and immigrant culinary experiences. Students’ fieldwork was to be conducted in ethnic restaurants and included interviews with staff, menu analysis, and exploring visual food aspects. Alternatively, this could be a culinary program analysis containing an ethnic component or a historical recipe.

For many participants, it is not immediately obvious that their research object can be so close to them that they might study what is literally nearby. In this context, it is crucial to demonstrate the methods they should use. The interactive lectures provided a basis for analyzing ways to apply multicultural and intercultural practices in both education and research. The students’ work employed a variety of methods to analyze the material they had collected. The methods that students could use included, primarily, linguistic ethnography, which provides a contextualized understanding of language use in social settings; interviewing, both structured and semi-structured, to gather personal narratives and insights; targeted observation to focus on specific language practices and interactions in naturalistic environments; systematic note-taking to document observed behaviors and contextual details; introspection and autoethnography, allowing researchers to reflect on their own linguistic experiences; photo analysis, which involves interpreting visual data related to language and culture; conversational analysis to examine the structure and function of spoken interactions; and thematic analysis to identify and interpret recurring patterns or themes across qualitative data sources.

3. Materials and Methods

In the present study, we analyze lecture materials, learning diaries, and essays. Our study combines pedagogical and sociolinguistic approaches. Our aim was to gain insights into the specific aspects of multilingualism and multiculturalism that lecturers embody in their teaching, as well as to explore the methods through which students can engage with and study these dimensions. We were essentially conducting research on the use of research methods—a form of reflexive inquiry (Lyle, 2018; McLay et al., 2023; Oliver, 2018) —and how students engaged with these methods as part of their learning process, which makes us as teachers reflect on the further development of the course. This study represents a qualitative case study, analyzing how students applied research methods during a university-level course. Thematic analysis was used to explore how students selected, understood, and implemented research methods, as well as how their methodological thinking evolved during the course.

4. Results

4.1. The Lecturers’ Part

Our course explored culinary concepts and their impact on human life both locally and globally, encouraging students to reassess their perceptions of “otherness” and analyze food patterns and their contemporary roles. It included geographical lecture groupings, such as Eating with the Neighbors (Finnish and nearby cuisines); From the Baltic to Central Europe (Latvian to Hungarian food cultures); Formative Cuisines of the Mediterranean (French to Middle Eastern cuisines); and Eating Outside Europe (influences from the US, Mexico, China, Japan, India). A recurring theme throughout all the lectures was the idea of ethnic and linguistic contacts, influenced by both historical and contemporary aspects of proximity and migration. Here is the main content of the course (all the lectures were richly illustrated and followed by fun tasting sessions).

There are distinct separate food traditions in eastern (originally baked dishes, sour flavors, rye bread made weekly) and western (originally boiled dishes, sweet flavors, rye bread made twice a year) Finland, including differences in cooking methods and bread baking frequency. The 1950s marked the period of modernization in the Finnish diet and eating habits, characterized by a shift toward increased consumption of animal products, vegetables, and fruit accompanied by a decline in grain and starchy food consumption. The symbolic significance of Nordic flavors is associated with nature in its wild state and purity, which has been reshaped as a political message in Finnish food policy, despite rye bread being perceived as the national Finnish dish, together with Karelian pastries that incidentally only became hugely popular in recent decades and were initially scorned in most of Finland as the typical food of indigent Karelian evacuees after the Second World War (Johanna Mäkelä).

Finnish cuisine showcases diverse influences, with distinctive regional variations influenced by neighboring countries like Russia and Sweden. From the iconic rye bread, featuring a hole for hanging and drying in the west, to Sami specialties like smoked reindeer in the north and Karelian dishes in the east, Finnish culinary traditions reflect a blend of flavors and ingredients. Additionally, dishes like piirakka “pie” and kiisseli “kissel,” originating from Russia, alongside favorites such as rosolli beetroot salad and sweet treats like konvehti, kinuski, and marmeladi, contribute to the rich tapestry of Finnish food culture. All the dish names were etymologized, showing how borrowings are adapted and how cooking methods transform in different social groups and in various parts of the country. A historic hand-written book of recipes from 1903/1904 illustrated the lecture (Alexandra Grigorieva).

The Swedish-speaking population, constituting approximately 5.3% of Finland’s population, has significantly influenced Finnish cuisine. Fish, meat, and milk are the mainstays of Swedish culinary tradition in Finland. The Helsinki Baltic herring market, where Swedish-speaking fishermen play a prominent role, underscores the cultural significance of fish in the local diet. Additionally, the practice of salting and smoking meat in saunas along the coastline reflects the fusion of Swedish and Finnish culinary techniques. Some educational institutions (e.g., Högvalla) have also played a role in transmitting Swedish food culture, serving as hubs for culinary education and the imparting of domestic skills. Furthermore, modern influences such as Swedish TV programs and magazines have further integrated Swedish cuisine into Finnish culinary practices (for instance, Finnish Janssonin kiusaus has its origin in the Swedish Janssons frestelse—Jansson’s temptation, potato and pickled sprat casserole). There are some traditional songs for eating and drinking (Yrsa Lindqvist).

Romani have been present in Finland for over five centuries, endeavoring to preserve their traditions and culture, but the newer generations are increasingly losing touch with them due to modern food influences. They typically adopt Finnish eating habits, often preparing ample meals for Christmas. Their diet revolves around simple, hearty fare like meat, root vegetables, potatoes, and various sweets. Women cook, and there is always some food prepared for guests (Janette Gronfors).

The Tatars, the oldest Muslim minority in Finland, number approximately 1000 people. In the 19th century, many Tatars were itinerant peddlers and introduced new foods such as chicken and eggs to Finnish remote rural areas. Some Tatar dishes, such as pärämäts/pärämäç/peremec fried pasty usually stuffed with meat, have made it to the modern Finnish culinary scene, particularly in Tampere. Originating from regions with similar climates, Finnish Tatars continue to favor traditional vegetables like onion, red beetroot, carrot, turnip, cabbage, and potato. Tatar halal dining customs include avoidance of “unclean” pork, raw oysters, snakes, and small birds, though habits may vary based on regional and climatic factors. Tatars observe dietary restrictions prohibiting food sacrificed to other gods, carrion, blood, pork, and certain slaughtering practices. Tatar specialties include göbädiyä, a festive pie served at weddings, kazi, a thinly sliced air-dried horse sausage, shorba, a soup featuring root vegetables, homemade noodles, and oven-cooked eggs. While eating, women and men usually sit apart (Kadriye Bedretdin).

Hungary’s thriving agriculture supports a large population of farmers, with paprika, meat, and sour cream being key ingredients in Hungarian cuisine. Popular dishes include stews like pörkölt and goulash (also a soup), paprika chicken, lángos “fried bread,” sour cherry soup, different kinds of pickles, halászlé “fish soup with paprika,” lecsó “tomato and bell pepper stew,” töltött káposzta “stuffed cabbage,” zöldborsófőzelék “green pea stew” and the famous dobos “sponge cake with buttercream and caramel.” The country also has a significant Jewish population following kosher practices characterizing Jewish cuisine. Kosher dietary laws prohibit certain animals, require specific methods of slaughter, and impose restrictions on various foods and utensils. Hungarian dishes prepared in a kosher manner can also be considered part of Jewish cuisine. Finland is home to around 1300 Finnish Jews, primarily in Helsinki and Turku. Finnish Jewish cuisine is evolving, incorporating new trends like salmon, salad, and even grilling sausages makkara at the cottage, and there are also many Israeli influences, such as hummus (Dora Pataricza).

The historical background of Estonia shapes the diversity found in Estonian food culture, with German and Soviet influences. Rye bread holds significant importance in Estonian cuisine, crafted from sourdough and molasses for its distinct black color and flavor. The Christmas cuisine includes pork roast, roasted sausages, cooked sauerkraut, boiled potatoes, sült (meat jelly), lots of light pickles (e.g., mushrooms, pumpkin), and homemade beer or cider. Despite the geographical proximity of Finland and Estonia, differences exist, such as the abundance of different dairy products like sour crème, which is put everywhere, and strong mustard. Additionally, unlike the intensely coffee-drinking Finns (Finland boasts of highest per capita consumption of coffee in the world), Estonians exhibit equal preferences for both coffee and tea (especially herbal tea) consumption. The main hot course comes first, and the cold courses remain on the table till the end of the event (Martin Ehala and Järvi Lipasti). Some linguistically related terms sound similar but mean different things, e.g., piim is “milk” in Estonian, and piimä is “soured/fermented milk” in Finland; Est. kohu is “quark,” and Fin. kuohu is “foam.”

Latvia’s rich history has contributed to a diverse culinary landscape characterized by various influences. For Latvians, bread, potatoes, beer, and cottage cheese are cherished staple foods. These ingredients feature prominently in many traditional dishes, like herring with cottage cheese and potatoes, as well as mushrooms with potatoes and cream, bread soup (a very special dessert) and so on. Bacon is used a lot in Latvian cuisine, particularly in such iconic dishes as gray peas with bacon and tiny bacon rolls/buns speķa pīrāgi. Caraway is much appreciated as a flavoring and figures prominently in Jāņu siers, the signature Midsummer/St. John’s curd cheese (Laimute Balode).

Lithuanian historical cuisine reflects its agricultural traditions in a temperate climate zone, with significant influences from various countries. Light breakfasts and dinners are common, often accompanied by distinctive Lithuanian rye bread. One iconic Lithuanian sweet is šakotis, resembling a tree with many branches (German Baumkuchen), made by rotating a spit in a special open oven or over an open fire, typically reserved for special occasions like weddings or Christmas. Other specialties are cepelinai “big potato dumplings,” kugelis “grated potato pie,” pancakes, blueberry dumplings, and salted herring. Ground hemp seed is often used for flavoring potatoes, and hemp oil is also quite common (Aurelija Kaškelevičienė).

Germany is known for its regional varieties like Dresdener Stollen (Christmas cake from Dresden), Sorbische Biersuppe (Sorbian beer soup), and eel soup from Hamburg. Germany ranks as the second most popular immigrant destination according to the OECD, contributing to the diverse array of specialties in German cuisine. It is renowned for its spectacular variety of sausages, like Thuringian Rostbratwurst, as well as for its cakes and tarts, and its prominent wine and beer culture, where the latter typically adheres to the Reinheitsgebot, a law first adopted in Bavaria in 1516 (but already existing in earlier forms) ensuring preservation of the quality and authenticity of beer. There is a tradition of fetching fresh bread from the bakery every morning. Meanwhile, Austrian cuisine reflects influences from the former Habsburg Empire, evident in its divergent food vocabulary containing many words of Hungarian, Italian and Slavic origin. Following Austria’s accession to the European Union in 1995, arrangements were made to preserve its culinary identity distinct from Germany. The same food may have different names in Austria and Germany, like das Faschierte (<French)/das Hackfleisch “minced meat,” der Karfiol (<Ital.)/der Blumenkohl “cauliflower,” der Kren (<Czech)/der Meerrettich “horse radish,” der Kukuruz (<Turk.)/der Mais “corn.” Sachertorte and Kaiserschmarrn mit Zwetschgenröster are typical of the famous Vienna café culture. Food is significant in connecting German-speaking individuals both in Germany and in Austria to their Heimat (homeland) (Claudia Jeltsch).

The iconic food in France is bread, known as pain, which has been a staple since the Middle Ages and continues to be widely consumed, with the number of bakeries still increasing. The word copain (friend) originates from the idea of sharing bread with others. Another significant specialty is dragée, a ceremonial sweet often offered at baptisms and weddings. Meals in France hold prestigious significance, with strict rules dictating table manners, postures and conversational topics. Adhering to these customs is key to belonging to the bourgeoisie and attaining high social status. Thus, mealtimes serve as a tool for displaying social status and structuring family dynamics by assigning seating arrangements. French cuisine is still in evidence in the former colonies, like breakfast with a baguette or croissant and cheese and jam in Morocco or the Vietnamese predilection for coffee and a baguette, with the latter evolving into bánh mì stuffed baguette fusion culture (Sabine Kraenker).

Ancient Roman culinary culture centered on grains, beans, olives, fruits, and cheese, with prominent use of cooking liquids like olive oil, wine, honey, vinegar, and fish sauce. Spices such as black pepper were common, while sugar, though already known, was extremely rare and used for medicinal purposes. Notable gourmet dishes for feasts included fish and seafood (often farmed), such as moray eels and oysters, and small delicacies such as specially fattened thrushes and dormice. Romans used to dine reclining on couches, but this habit had died out by early Middle Ages when Italy became home to many different barbaric kingdoms. By the time of Italy’s nationalist movement and the unification of the country in 1871, with Rome as its capital, many parts of Italy developed their own distinctive culinary traditions. Italian cuisine, celebrated for its regional diversity and emphasis on fresh ingredients, cheese, and delicatessen, was eventually codified through seminal cookbooks like Pellegrino Artusi’s La scienza in cucina e l’arte di mangiare bene and Ada Boni’s Il talismano della felicità, the latter catering to Italian women and aiding the nation’s culinary consolidation (Alexandra Grigorieva).

Sweets were significant in Soviet cuisine, reflecting social status and serving as affordable luxury items, despite not being nutritionally essential. Soviet sweet foods, including puddings, cakes, pastries, and compote, were conservative compared to other types of food. Additionally, strict laws governed food production and marketing, requiring approval from the Soviet Ministry of Trade’s united tasting council for new recipes to be mass-produced. The late 1950s and early 1960s saw a shift from buying ready-made cakes in the shops to baking cakes at home, facilitated by the introduction of gas ovens, which revolutionized home baking. Sweets of such a kind played a crucial role in socialization, particularly for children, shaping their early food experiences. Soviet cuisine was characterized by a limited range of ingredients and simplified cooking methods, often due to ingredient scarcity. Condensed milk was essential for preparing many sweets at home (Catriona Kelly).

While meat is often perceived as dominant in Polish cuisine, plants and berries are prominent ingredients. Flatbread (podpłomyki) is made from flour, chalka from eggs and wheat flour (similar to challah Sabbath bread), obwarzanek krakowski “Kraków bagel” is first boiled and later baked, and żurek is a soup from fermented rye served at the Easter meal. Pierogi “filled dumplings,” initially consumed by peasants, are now one of Poland’s most iconic dishes. Rosol is a broth containing two or three types of meat and is served, for example, on Sundays. Krupnik is a barley soup, czernina is a duck blood soup, and makowiec is a poppy seed roll cake traditionally served during Christmas. Christmas dishes hold great significance, with twelve served to symbolize the twelve apostles. The Jewish influence is evident in dishes like fish served in aspic. In addition, certain dietary restrictions are practiced, like the ban on meat during fasting (Izabela Jakubek-Głąb).

The Balkans, comprising countries in southern Europe, boast specialties like burek, a savory pie made of phyllo dough with various fillings, and stovetop brewed “Turkish” coffee, which play significant roles in shaping the regional identity and discourse. While burek may be known by various names across different regions, both it and coffee are emblematic of the cultural identity and societal divisions in the region. In the 19th century, coffee and tobacco were predominantly consumed by men, but today, the tradition of enjoying coffee while smoking remains, with women now having equal access to these cultural practices. Burek gained popularity across the Mediterranean basin in the time of the Ottoman Empire (Johanna Virkkula).

Taiwan, once colonized by Japan, faces debates over whether its cuisine is distinct from mainland Chinese cuisine. Food is very different in different parts of mainland China. Culinary writer Tang Lu-Sun’s experience in Taiwan after World War II highlights some of these views suggesting that Taiwanese food lacks authenticity. However, in Taiwan, you may find many distinctive dishes such as, for instance, coffin bread (indirect influence of European cuisine) filled with fish soup. Beans are widely used in desserts, a legacy of the Japanese colonization. Essential ingredients in Taiwanese cuisine include readily available seafood, along with vegetables, garlic paste, coriander, and the rice wine common to Chinese cuisine as well. Typically, Taiwanese milkfish ball soup, peddler’s noodles, bowl cakes made of rice flour, and stewed pork sauce are also widely enjoyed. Taiwanese bubble tea, often made with condensed milk and tapioca “pearls”, became popular around the world. While some argue that the best Taiwanese food is found at home, restaurants in Taiwan do offer a hybrid of culinary influences, reflecting a sense of culinary liberty. The unique aspects of Taiwanese food culture may also include vegetarian and vegan buffets and street breakfasts, influenced by Buddhism, a major religion in Taiwan (Julie Yu-Wen Chen).

Indian cuisine is commonly associated with spices, rice, and naan bread, yet there are innumerable regional variations due to the diverse religious and cultural traditions. Certain ingredients like beef, pork, and even some vegetables, such as potatoes, onions, and garlic, may be excluded from certain regional cuisines based on religious beliefs like Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism. One notable Indian specialty is dosa, a rice pancake typically filled with ingredients like potatoes, cheese, nuts, or other flavorful additions (Xenia Zeiler).

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a significant number of Indians, primarily Punjabi and Bengali, migrated to the western United States to become farmers and rail workers. Faced with discrimination and interracial marriage bans, many Indians began marrying Mexicans, resulting in a fusion of their cuisines. This fusion gave rise to new dishes like curry chicken enchiladas. Indian food in the United States has often been perceived as buffet-style, inexpensive, and low quality. However, today, there is a growing presence of Indian restaurants offering upscale Americanized versions or fusion cuisine, reflecting the evolving of Indian food culture in the US (Vejay Nair).

Eastern Asia boasts widely diverse diets, exemplified by the Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, and Nivkh food cultures. Mongolians, predominantly meat eaters, endure extreme temperatures ranging from −40 °C in winter to +40 °C in summer. Despite modernization, traditional practices like nomadic living in yurts (huge round tents) persist, featuring a single room dwelling with a central stove. Food is categorized into three groups: red (meat), white (dairy), and green (tea). Conversely, the Nivkh people on the Sakhalin Island and near the river Amur, indigenous to Russia, rely heavily on fish (and even make fish-based desserts) due to the abundance of rivers in their region. Their diet includes dried fish, caviar, seal meat and blubber, as well as berries and plants. Fish is so essential that even dogs are fed with it, and hunting is not prevalent among them (Ekaterina Gruzdeva and Juha Janhunen).

The representations of immigrants’ food in various media emphasize the cultural significance of taste. Immigrants in German shelters refused the food they were offered because they must prepare their food themselves using familiar ingredients. Jacob Lawrence’s artwork depicted African Americans enjoying a picnic, symbolizing both community and segregation in 1960s America. Don Coen’s portraits present migrant farm workers, highlighting the disparity between their labor and their access to fresh food. Discussions of post-colonial appropriation start when Rick Bayless, a white chef, represents Mexican cuisine, or when McDonald’s adapts its menu to different food cultures (including a hamburger in a rye bread roll in Finland). Early cookbooks like the Epicure series stereotype immigrant culinary cultures. On the other side is fusion as a positive contemporary culinary trend, promoting cultural exchange over cultural dominance (Darra Goldstein).

Food serves as a tool for navigating cultural transitions during migration, often representing a form of cultural preservation and identity. Parents may adjust their food practices to accommodate their children’s social environments, leading to negotiations and tensions within families. Additionally, food plays a central role in migrant children’s sense of belonging and meaning making, with aromas and flavors evoking memories and connections to their heritage. Food insecurity highlights the way children are aware of economic disparities and navigate their identities within different cultural contexts. Such negotiations contribute to the reproduction of social differences and notions of belonging (Ann Phoenix).

People attach significance to recollections of their meals. Food has the unique ability to evoke memories that go beyond the ingredients per se, with each aroma and flavor reconstructing something intricate preserved in the human mind. Family holidays serve as examples of feasting rituals, and food becomes a central element in commemorating traditions. Despite varying cultural interpretations of holidays, the symbolic meaning of food remains consistent, serving as a unifying force that transcends socioeconomic barriers and allows families to participate in shared rituals and experiences (Rayna Gavrilova).

Immigrants often cling to their culinary traditions amidst pressures to assimilate. Acculturation occurs over generations, with the second generation typically adopting local dishes over their cultural heritage. Some immigrants opt for a hybrid approach, blending past and present food cultures. People should be included in discussions of cultural development; children actively shape food habits and embody new ideologies. Examining the Vietnamese town of Hoi An, with five different communities of Chinese immigrants, once a vibrant international port, reveals the complexity of the local culinary identity. While celebrating the arrival of Phuc Kien Chinese ancestors to Vietnam, modern community food practices also reflect the broader Chinese culture, symbolizing a connection to Greater China and its modern identity. In the Ethiopian Israelite community, the older immigrants preferred the Ethiopian word injera for their iconic sour teff flatbread, but the youngsters avoided using this term, preferring Hebrew, the dominant language of their surroundings. Leaders can reshape cultural symbols, like reclaiming watermelon from its racist connotations. Despite its history as a symbol of Black slavery and inferiority, watermelon now symbolizes culinary redemption and freedom, reflecting the community’s journey from oppression to empowerment (Nir Avieli).

The multifaceted role of food, not only as sustenance but also as a crucial aspect of culture, festivities, rituals, and daily life, shapes people’s identities and defines cultural boundaries. Immigrants undergo a complex process of adjustment and negotiation upon relocating to a new country, often blending elements of their culture with the host culture. Canada, particularly Toronto, has evolved into a multicultural hub, reflected in its diverse culinary landscape. Food holds various meanings for immigrants, serving as a connection to their homeland, a marker of identity, and a means of community building. However, challenges such as language barriers, high food prices, limited job opportunities, and cultural adjustments can compromise food security, as observed among Syrian refugees in Canada (Mustafa Koç).

Because DLC theory explores the dynamic interactions between the dominant and subordinate languages within a person’s repertoire, it can be applied to understand the role of food in migrants’ experience. Similar to the way languages evoke emotions and represent aspects of one’s cultural identity, food serves as a potent symbol of heritage and identity for migrants. It can act as a substitute for lost possessions, providing a tangible connection to their homeland that might be difficult to recreate in a new environment. Food, much like language, facilitates social connections and often becomes central to family and holiday celebrations, reinforcing the sense of community and belonging. Feelings of security and happiness derived from familiar culinary practices play a crucial role in fostering well-being and aiding identity development. In this process, children often act as cultural mediators, influencing their parents’ food choices and contributing to cultural evolution. This mirrors the way they might engage with and influence language practices within their families, blending elements of language from both the dominant culture and their own heritage.

This section illustrates in a compelling way how culinary traditions serve as both repositories of cultural memory and active sites of social negotiation. The examples—from Finnish national dishes to hybrid immigrant cuisines—highlight food’s dual role in preserving identity and navigating new sociocultural contexts. However, while we acknowledge inequality through references to status foods and food insecurity, in the future, a course like this one could benefit from a more systematic critique of how structural forces—such as class, migration policy, or racialization—shape access to culinary expression and cultural legitimacy. Deeper engagement with power relations would further enrich the understanding of food as not just a cultural artifact but also a contested social resource.

4.2. The Students’ Part: Theory

The students reflect on labels like the names of dishes, recipe language, menu as advertisement, olfactory experiences, names of spices, flavors, and concepts like tasteful, cheap, domestic, pure, and clean during the lecture part of the course. However, in their essays, they concentrate more on their own memories and connected them with what they had heard. All the Finnish students in particular evoke synesthetic images closely linked to visits to grandparents’ homes and outdoor adventures: “In my childhood, I was often woken up by the smell of pancakes my grandmother made for breakfast;” “I remember how we used to make jam together.” They reflect on distinct culinary experiences provided by their paternal and maternal grandparents, with a focus on nature-based activities like berry and mushroom picking, as well as fishing expeditions. For example, summers were spent immersed in nature’s serenity. Exploring the forest to gather bilberries, raspberries, lingonberries, and occasional cloudberries was a cherished ritual. These excursions instill in one a sense of pride and connection to the land. The berry bounty would later be transformed into delectable treats like jam, juice, and vispipuuro (fluffy semolina pudding), enhancing the bond between generations working together in the kitchen. Under such circumstances, the dominance of Finnish culture and language in the students from multicultural backgrounds became evident. Mushroom picking added an element of excitement tinged with caution due to the presence of poisonous mushroom varieties. The thrill of finding edible mushrooms, coupled with the satisfaction of contributing to one’s family’s culinary repertoire, left indelible impressions. Students fondly recall savoring chanterelle soup, prepared with care using traditional ingredients like real butter and whole milk. Apart from foraging, fishing expeditions were also a cherished pastime, with early mornings spent on tranquil waters close to the summer cottage. Such outings fostered a deep appreciation of nature’s beauty and the simple joys of life. The thrill of catching fish, albeit modest in size, was celebrated with reverence, epitomizing harmonious relationship between humans and their natural surroundings. Spinach pancakes were a beloved dish at one’s grandmother’s home. Culinary traditions upheld by students’ grandparents, hearty meals cooked with love and care, had an enduring impact. From the aroma of freshly baked bread emanating from a traditional baking oven to the savory delights of fish soup made from the day’s catch, the memory of every dish served at the grandparents’ home was imbued with warmth and nostalgia. One student remembers the menu composed, written, and illustrated by the grandparents to entertain and teach their grandchildren.

Another set of childhood food memories comes from Finnish kindergarten, where some children sometimes felt nauseous because of certain foods, but other foods were actually enjoyed more than at home. A couple of decades ago, children used to wash down their meals with milk or soured milk, but now water is more commonly provided. Trips to the forest, a mandatory practice in Finnish kindergartens, are associated with healthy snacks and boxed drinks brought along for picnics in any weather. In summer, children have access to free soup at playgrounds, which also becomes an important part of childhood memories. As children, they might not like tastes of salmiakki (licorice) or blue cheese popular in Finland, but later, they develop a preference for such flavors.

The student GE claims that primal taste and smell instincts, deepened over time, trigger potent memories from childhood. Both childhood and foreign cuisines offer fresh culinary experiences, with children exploring diverse flavors and adults encountering fusion twists in familiar foods abroad. From Finnish classics to experimental dishes, childhood foods like fluffy semolina pudding with lingonberries and autumn apple pies evoke beloved memories, together with cherished traditions like cloudberry picking and stocking freezers with self-picked berries. Among childhood snacks such as toasted rye bread Vaasan ruispalat with butter and Oltermanni cheese, moist pineapple–coconut cake holds a special place, evoking nostalgic reflections despite its non-traditional origins. The student recalls her childhood food experiences, attributing her adventurous palate to her father’s diverse cooking and early exposure to international flavors like curry, coriander, capers, etc., fostering an openness to new foods and cultures. Despite encountering unusual dishes like goat eyes during her travels, she embraces culinary exploration, enjoying local delicacies such as Nepali dal bhat (rice with lentils and vegetables) and Italian seafood pasta while appreciating memorable treats like juju dhau yogurt in Bhaktapur, Nepal. She reflects on her diverse culinary experiences in South Africa, Zambia, Botswana, France, Estonia, Norway, Belgium, Germany, and many other European countries, recounting how her travels expanded her palate, despite encountering challenging dishes like mopane worms in Namibia (she did not eat them; instead, she ate oryx, kudus, zebras, impalas and crocodiles and the best vegetarian pizza made with beetroot, pomegranate, avocado, and nuts). She believes that food is a universal language that brings people together, fostering cultural exchange and appreciation, and she hopes to pass on her adventurous spirit for tasting new flavors to future generations.

Students remember that potatoes, often served with sausage or meatballs, and lingonberry jam were a staple in their childhood home, along with occasional pancakes cooked over an open flame of the campfire, mashed vegetable soup, or, during winter excursions, hot juice and grilled sausages. One student initially favored white bread over rye but later developed a taste for rye bread. He began craving diverse foods in adolescence, occasionally enjoying pasta or chicken with rice. His travels abroad and in Finland exposed him to a variety of cuisines, including falafel, hummus, tajine, haggis, knafe, bear pizza in Lapland, and porilainen sandwich in Pori (a town in western Finland). Later, many students become vegetarians or vegans. For CD, new vegetarian fare with Indian-inspired dishes and avocado pasta became big favorites, although family traditions also play a significant role in his culinary experiences, with cherished holiday dishes like Christmas rice porridge, baked ham, gravlax, casseroles, salads, glögi (mulled wine), and summertime favorites like Baltic herring and strawberries with ice cream.

Travels abroad, such as traditional winter holiday trips to the Canary Islands, were occasions when students discovered new dishes like calamari rings, Canarian potatoes with mojo sauce, and so on, indulging in sweet things like Nutella for breakfast, Pringles on the beach, and freshly pressed orange juice. Or they would vividly remember a memorable dining experience in Rhodes, where they enjoyed a delicious, albeit greasy, omelet at a quaint restaurant and a complimentary dessert of pomegranate, Greek yogurt, and honey from the restaurant owner. Italian cuisine holds a special place in their hearts, both in restaurants and at home, with its simplicity and emphasis on fresh ingredients, so dishes such as pizza, pasta, and risotto became deeply familiar. The student BL reports that she has recently developed a fondness for Nepalese/Indian cuisine, particularly shahi paneer, which she often prepares at home using tofu and oat cream as substitutes for paneer cheese and regular cream. She also hopes to try baking naan bread at home, despite the challenges of replicating restaurant-quality results.

The student MA writes that one’s adventurous spirit shines through as one recounts tasting exotic delicacies like lampreys, snails, and cephalopods, each with its own unique story and association. These experiences expand one’s palate and broaden one’s cultural understanding. Entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, emerges as a fascinating journey of discovery and exploration. One’s openness to new culinary experiences reflects a curiosity and appreciation for diverse food cultures, and one confronts the complexities of food systems and societal attitudes toward food. Overall, one’s personal narrative offers a window into the intricate web of food memories, cultural influences, and ethical considerations that shape people’s relationship with food. Each story testifies to the power of food to evoke emotions, create connections, and spark curiosity about the world around us.

The student TW narrates that Korean food, with its diverse range of barbecues, side dishes, and kimchi, became a favorite, while Mongolian cuisine surprised with its emphasis on root vegetables and unique flavors like salty milk tea. China presented challenges due to language barriers but offered memorable dishes like Peking duck and fish in sour soup. In Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand, it was the familiar dishes like pad Thai and curries that provided comfort. Through these culinary adventures, TW discovered the universal language of food, connecting with people and cultures across borders. Powerful food colors evoke vivid imagery, from the vibrant red of well-ripened tomatoes and the rich purple and silver green hues of eggplants and kale to the luscious yellow of a soft-boiled egg yolk and the deep dark redness of raw wagyu beef. Similarly, the decadent allure of a partly runny chocolate cake or the creamy off-white of vanilla ice cream sets the stage for a visually enticing culinary experience.

American students that took our course remembered encountering diverse flavors very early in life because the daily food they ate often came from restaurants. Family gatherings, particularly Thanksgiving, were marked by abundant food, laughter, and particular traditions like grandpa’s cigar-smoking and elaborate meal preparations. Moving to Northern California, the narrator discovered Mexican cuisine and the Schrock salad. Hawaii introduced them to a fresh food paradise, with an abundance of tropical fruits and local delicacies like kalua pork and poke bowls. Rice became a dietary staple there. Many a US student discovered sushi restaurants and enjoyed acai bowls, as well as French cheese parties with homemade bread and garden-fresh produce. They also learned that when in Sweden, it is easy to explore Swedish summer rituals and communal dining practices, for example, the crayfish party, where participants are supposed to catch crayfish before enjoying the moonlit feast. From baking brownies at college to making jam and pesto from homegrown ingredients, the narrators’ love for cooking and sweets has remained constant, evolving with each season and with each new culinary discovery.

One student on our course came from Latin America. His reflections started with an explanation of local eating habits and the way different dishes belong to the morning, afternoon, and evening meal of the day. For him, preserving his own food practices goes beyond mealtime rituals; it is also about cherished recipes and treats. Condensed milk is the main ingredient of manjar (dulce de leche), and it is also enjoyed in cakes, pastries, bread pudding, or simply spread on bread. Several celebrations include barbecuing. Holding on to one’s traditions while abroad, one may offer homemade empanadas and a bottle of red wine to one’s friends, transmitting the spirit of camaraderie, which transcends borders, and teaching them new words and customs in the process. Nowadays, each meal in this student’s home reflects a fusion of cultural influences from the US, Czech Republic, and Finland, to name just a few. In his opinion, the blending of culinary influences extends beyond the countries one has lived in, as new food experiences can shape eating habits regardless of location.

Just the fact that people can name what they eat in the language of their childhood may make them glad. Very often, words for specific berries, mushrooms, and fish are remembered in that language only. Stories about foodways commonly include local terminology. Additionally, the act of eating new foods is in some way reminiscent of the linguistic process of learning and adapting to new languages, promoting hybridization and intercultural exchange. Moreover, it could be the act of shared love rooted in childhood experiences. Thus, the DLC theory provides a framework for understanding how food, like language, is integral to any person’s experience, facilitating emotional connections, identity development, and cultural diversity.

The students’ focus on personal narratives and sensory memories underscores the deeply embodied nature of culinary experience, revealing how food serves as both a site of emotional resonance and a means of cultural transmission. Their reflections skillfully demonstrate that naming and sharing food in one’s native language not only evokes nostalgia but also asserts identity within a multicultural landscape. However, the emphasis on positive memory and cultural belonging could be enriched by acknowledging how food memories may also reflect loss, displacement, or cultural tension, especially for diasporic or marginalized groups. This would add complexity to the analysis of how food and language jointly mediate identity in contexts of migration and intercultural contact.

4.3. The Students’ Part: Practice

Students’ independent work typically reflects their academic interests. Those studying migration pay attention to the background of the restaurant staff, language biographies, and personal stories. Those immersed in comparative linguistics and the study of linguistic landscapes compare how the same dish is named on menus or signs in different languages (in Helsinki, this often includes Finnish, Swedish, English, Russian, and Chinese, depending on the type and location of the restaurant). Historians trace the evolution of a restaurant from its origin to the present day, comparing how dishes were named and served both in the past and now. Specialists in African, Asian, American, or Russian studies choose relevant dining establishments for their analysis.

One student analyzed the culinary show in the TV series titled “Istanbul: Turkish Cuisine at a Crossroads,” a melting pot where European and Asian influences converge, and food is mainly seasonal. Street food options abound, offering delights like stuffed mussels, döner kebab, and Turkish ice cream. Palace cuisine and Anatolian cuisine are presented as trends of their own. Fresh fish from the Black Sea and ancient wheat varieties from Central Turkey add to this gastronomic mosaic. Simit bagels and baklava cakes are celebrated as national foods. Spices like hot red pepper flakes and sumac are essential, used for example in stuffed vine leaves and fried eggplants.

When researching a restaurant, students started by describing its exterior and interior, taking photos. Then, they analyzed the menu and interviewed both the owners and the waiters. They asked, if it was possible, about the food sources and its preparation, the meaning of the terms used, the situations when such food was served in the homeland, what was easy and what was difficult in preparing these dishes in Finland. Usually, ingredients were sourced both locally and from the homeland, as well as from international suppliers.

One example is a description of Addis, an Ethiopian restaurant in Helsinki, that pays homage to Ethiopia’s capital, combining Orthodox Christian and Islamic religious practices. The restaurant offers a menu rooted in traditional Ethiopian home cooking, including a variety of vegan dishes to accommodate diverse preferences. It features injera bread made from barley and wheat flour, a range of sauces and stews, with authentic ingredients sourced both locally and from Ethiopia. On special occasions, they hold coffee ceremonies. The owner ensures the authenticity of the dishes and creates an Ethiopian home ambience, making Addis a must-visit for a genuine Ethiopian dining experience.

The ethnographic study of a Chinese restaurant in Helsinki highlights the operations, ownership, and menu offerings of a family-run business established by Cantonese immigrants in the 1980s. Its manager, the daughter of the founders, explained that the restaurant serves both traditional Cantonese cuisine and a Finnish-oriented menu to cater to local tastes. The restaurant employs a mix of family members and hired staff. Its focus is on maintaining authentic Cantonese cooking methods and ingredients, despite some local substitutions. The study also noted cultural and culinary differences, such as the use of chopsticks versus forks and knives and practices of communal dining in China. Additionally, the restaurant’s decor reflects traditional Chinese elements, and the menu is translated into multiple languages to accommodate a diverse customer base.

Observations of the Sushi restaurant in the US reveal a focus on community, with staff members sharing a meal together before the dinner service. Its sushi bar serves as a prep area rather than as a showcase, and online ordering options allow for both pick-up and dine-in orders. The staff members, including a student from southern China, demonstrate varying degrees of English proficiency. Our student studied reviewers’ feedback and discovered that they had varying opinions about hybrid Chinese/Japanese restaurants. Some appreciate the authentic Japanese offerings, while others express surprise at the quality of sushi compared to their expectations of a typical Chinese restaurant. The restaurant’s adaptation of Japanese cuisine reflects a broader trend of cultural hybridity in culinary experiences.

The comparison between Nepalese and Indian restaurants in Helsinki highlights differences in their menus, particularly in vegetarian options and meat and fish dishes. Nepalese restaurants offer traditional vegetarian dishes such as veggie and paneer balls and cashew tomato cream sauce, while Indian restaurants feature deep-fried vegetable sticks and non-traditional offerings like fried eggplant in yogurt sauce and mushroom dishes. Additionally, there are discrepancies in how certain ingredients are named on the menus, such as paneer cheese, which is referred to by using different terms like leipäjuusto (Finnish fried cheese) or simply juusto (“cheese” in Finnish). Despite these differences, both Nepalese and Indian restaurants offer diverse culinary experiences, reflecting the complexities of adapting traditional dishes to local contexts.

While Peruvian, Cuban, and Argentinian cuisines have enjoyed popularity in Helsinki, Chilean food remains relatively undiscovered on the capital’s ethnic restaurant scene. The only Chilean restaurant in Helsinki offers a distinctive culinary journey into a culture often overlooked in Finland. Our student explored the buffet menu and engaged in enlightening conversations with the co-owner and staff in a warm atmosphere enhanced by Latin American music and decor. The dishes included fried fish and arepas (stuffed Venezuelan flatbread), and there were some echoes of Caribbean cuisine. Insights from an Argentinian staff member shed light on Latin American culinary practices and underscored the role of culinary traditions in cultural survival across borders.

One Thai restaurant outside Helsinki offers an authentic Thai dining experience, attracting both Finnish and Thai customers with its unadulterated menu and traditional flavors. Owned by a Finnish–Thai couple, the restaurant has garnered a loyal following. The menu features a variety of dishes, ranging from stir-fried tofu to spicy duck, showcasing the diversity of Thai cuisine. Despite challenges like high operating costs and competition, this place distinguishes itself through its commitment to freshness and quality, avoiding pre-made ingredients common in some other Thai restaurants.

These results highlight the role of food as a cultural connector, in alignment with DLC theory, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of language, culture, and identity. By exploring the nuances of menu composition, cultural influences, and dining experiences, students’ fieldwork displays the way food serves as a medium for expressing cultural identity and fostering connections among diverse communities. This aligns with the theory’s premise that language and culture are intertwined, influencing individuals’ perceptions and interactions within their social contexts.

Students’ investigations reveal how food functions not merely as nourishment or commerce but also as a lived narrative of migration, adaptation, and cultural negotiation. Their research highlights how culinary spaces act as semiotic landscapes where identity, memory, and belonging are continuously reconstructed through language, interior, and even menu design. However, while the projects richly document cultural diversity, using more of a critical lens on issues such as power dynamics, economic precarity, or food insecurity in migrant-run businesses would deepen the sociolinguistic and intercultural analysis.

5. Discussion

The stomach inspires many things. It is well known that food and culture can motivate language learning. There are even special language courses for tourists who plan to study cuisine on-site. Shopping, cooking, and eating can go hand in hand with learning vocabulary, idioms, and specific linguistic structures (Badea & Presada, 2016; Bubel & Spitz, 2013; Watts & Forder, 2013). As a result, teachers often use food-related stimuli to explain complex language concepts to learners. Even in technical and vocational education for culinary students, the training includes logical thinking and problem-solving, integrated with the development of practical skills and the adaptation of activities to different learning stages and under various cultural circumstances (Counihan et al., 2018; R. Wang, 2015).

The topic of food can be used to teach languages to both young children and adults. Young children paint and describe food. They create imaginary sandwiches, salads, and soups. Food-themed games support a playful approach to grammar. The taste of food is linked to many aspects of civilization and culture. Analyzing recipes offers examples of intercultural communication and text structure. Acting in a pretend TV cooking show fosters role-play and discourse development. All of these activities involve intensive language practice. Through culinary practices, both old and new texts are taught, while familiar ones are viewed from a new perspective, and in any case, it is an intercultural comparison (e.g., Dal Molin, 2022; Elbert & Drews, 2009; Walker & Walker, 2018; Yu, 2009).

In the present study, the lecturers’ portion of the course provided a comprehensive exploration of culinary traditions and their impact on human life, both locally and globally. The course was designed to encourage students to reassess their perceptions of “otherness” and analyze food patterns and their contemporary roles. Through geographical lecture groupings, the course covered a wide range of cuisines, from Finnish and neighboring cuisines to influences from the US, Mexico, China, Japan, and India. A recurring theme throughout the lectures was the idea of ethnic and linguistic contacts, influenced by both historical and contemporary aspects of proximity and migration.

The students’ part of the course involved reflecting on labels, names of dishes, recipe language, menu as advertisement, olfactory experiences, names of spices, flavors, and concepts like tasteful, cheap, domestic, pure, and clean. In their essays, students concentrated more on their own memories and connected them with what they had heard during the lectures. Students evoked synesthetic images closely linked to visits to grandparents’ homes and outdoor adventures, with a focus on nature-based activities like berry and mushroom picking, as well as fishing expeditions.

Students’ independent work typically reflected their academic interests, such as migration, comparative linguistics, and the study of linguistic landscapes. They analyzed restaurant staff members’ backgrounds, language biographies, personal stories, menu compositions, and cultural influences. Ethnographic studies of restaurants provided insights into the operations, ownership, menu offerings, and cultural practices of these businesses.

The results highlight the role of food as a cultural connector, aligning with DLC theory, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of language, culture, and identity. By exploring the nuances of menu composition, cultural influences, and dining experiences, students’ fieldwork demonstrated how food serves as a medium for expressing cultural identity and fostering connections among diverse communities. This aligns with the theory’s premise that language and culture are intertwined, influencing individuals’ perceptions of and interactions within their social contexts (cf. Cook, 2010; Grzega, 2015).

These findings demonstrate the deep connections between language, food, culture, and identity, illustrating how culinary traditions serve as markers of historical influences, migration patterns, and social interactions. The course successfully engaged students in both theoretical and experiential learning, blending lectures, tastings, and fieldwork to enhance their understanding of international foodways and dominant language constellations.

One key takeaway is the role of food as a cultural bridge, demonstrating how ethnic and linguistic contacts shape culinary traditions (see also Perry, 2017; J. Wang & Jia, 2016). The Finnish case study, for example, showcases how Russian, Swedish, Romani, and Tatar influences have left a lasting imprint on local cuisine, illustrating the fluid nature of cultural exchange. The inclusion of a broad range of global cuisines further reinforced this point, showing how migration and historical ties continue to shape food traditions across regions.

The students’ reflections and research projects added another dimension to this study, linking personal experiences to broader cultural and linguistic themes. The emphasis on synesthetic memories—associating food with sensory and emotional experiences—highlights how deeply embedded culinary traditions are in identity formation. Moreover, the linguistic aspects of food, such as menu language, food labeling, and restaurant ethnographies, align with dominant language constellation (DLC) theory, which underscores the interplay between language, culture, and social identity. The course effectively demonstrated how food functions as more than sustenance—it is a symbol of cultural heritage, a tool for communication, and a means of community-building. By integrating academic study with hands-on experiences, the course provided a holistic view of the ways in which food reflects and shapes social dynamics, reinforcing the idea that cuisine is an essential component of cultural and linguistic identity.

In addition to its educational and cultural value, food also plays a significant role in shaping identity and belonging, especially for humanitarian migrants. For these individuals, food insecurity is not only a matter of physical sustenance but also a cultural and emotional concern. Limited access to familiar ingredients or culturally appropriate meals can intensify feelings of displacement and loss. Conversely, the ability to cook traditional dishes or share meals rooted in one’s culture can reinforce identity and provide a sense of stability in a new environment. Culinary practices, therefore, become a form of cultural expression and resilience. When integrated into language education, such practices not only facilitate linguistic development but also support intercultural understanding and psychological well-being. This perspective further enriches the pedagogical use of food as a bridge between languages, identities, and lived experiences. DLC theory offers a valuable framework for understanding these dynamics, emphasizing the role of food and language in facilitating emotional connections and cultural diversity.

We are fully aware that culinary practices and their perceptions are not unanimous even within one community. In the present study, the authors base their descriptions and conclusions on data from a particular sample of teachers and students. If this course and this study are to be reproduced in other settings, the findings might be somewhat different, and this would be a valuable extension of the present study.

6. Conclusions

The concept of dominant language constellations (DLCs) serves as a foundation for studying language practices, facilitating the shift from a monolingual to a multilingual paradigm. This approach is effective in exploring the new culinary practices of indigenous and migrant populations and the discourse devoted to them. The absence of a built-in language hierarchy in a DLC has implications for language policy, particularly benefiting minority languages and multilingual countries facing complex language choices in education. Language policy specialists and enthusiasts operating within a DLC framework prioritize the acquisition and use of languages deemed important for their community, diverging from default societal assumptions about language status (Aronin & Vetter, 2021).

Food studies is a recent and rapidly expanding branch of the humanities. It is also an excellent lens for research on modern cultural practices connected with migration, feelings of belonging, cultural hybridity and multiple concepts of identity. Considering languages within a DLC framework, it is essential to recognize their connection to various aspects of human experience, including the brain, body, material environment, culture, and natural surroundings. DLCs encompass languages in their diverse forms, incorporating written and spoken modalities, as well as a spectrum of symbols, visuals, videos, spatial elements, and material resources. Food can evoke a range of emotions and serve as a substitute for lost possessions, “a home away from home” among migrants. It often represents a cherished aspect of their homeland, which can or cannot be reproduced in their new place of residence. Additionally, food can facilitate connections, with holiday celebrations often revolving around culinary experiences.

It became evident from the reflections that foreigners admire Finland’s health-conscious food culture, where salads are standard accompaniments to meals, many vegetarian and vegan options are offered in all eateries, and water is freely available. By providing a sense of security and happiness, food plays a crucial role in fostering well-being, a sense of belonging, and identity development. Children may engage in the hybridization process by influencing their parents’ food choices, becoming central figures in cultural evolution. Eating others’ food means learning and adapting. Each new environment brings opportunities for culinary exploration and adaptation, shaping the evolving relationship with food.

Fusion culinary practices lead to the emergence of blended words, code switching, calques, and lexical innovations. In multicultural families, establishing food practices within a family setting necessitates dialogue, compromise, and adaptability, underscoring the importance of analyzing eating habits to understand others and us better. Through the lens of DLC theory, the exploration of food culture reveals the complex interplay between language, culture, and identity in shaping individuals’ culinary experiences and community dynamics.