Newton’s Second Law Teaching Strategies—Identifying Opportunities for Educational Innovation

Abstract

Physics teaching faces challenges due to students’ limited understanding of fundamental concepts such as force and motion, as well as the restricted pedagogical strategies often employed by instructors and the limited variety of approaches to physical foundations. This difficulty is aggravated by the perception of physics as distant from everyday life and by the traditional approach focused on solving mathematical problems. Despite the importance of Newton’s second law, many students confuse the relationships between mass, force, and acceleration, which highlights the need to innovate in teaching practices toward active learning trends. To explore the state of teaching Newton’s second law, a systematic review of the literature was conducted using the PRISMA methodology, analyzing twenty-six articles from the Web of Science and Scopus databases. This revealed an increase in interest in teaching this law, especially in 2023. However, the limited number of studies (only 26) also indicates that research on this topic remains scarce and underexplored. Most studies focus on primary and secondary school students (43%) and employ quantitative methodologies (38%). Teaching strategies include problem-solving (40%), simulations (27%), practical activities (14%), and group discussions (12%). Furthermore, it was identified that Newton’s law is primarily represented in scalar form, with limited inclusion of vector approaches, which highlights the need to discuss didactic alternatives that consider both approaches.

1. Introduction

Physics is a discipline perceived by students and teachers as complex, mainly due to the abstract nature of its concepts (AlArabi et al., 2022), a perception that is sharpened when it is considered distant and deeply mathematical (Moreno & Velásquez, 2017). These aspects are reflected in concepts such as speed, acceleration, force, and motion, which are taught in a decontextualized manner, which is relevant considering that they are fundamental for learning physics at all levels of education (Lemmer, 2017).

Newton’s second law constitutes a fundamental pillar in scientific development, indispensable for understanding the motion and behavior of physical systems in various areas of physics (Alabidi et al., 2023; Susskind, 2013). Its knowledge establishes the “rules of the game” for learning physics (Winkler et al., 2023), being essential for addressing topics such as heat, electricity, energy, and momentum (Tomara et al., 2017). Although it provides a key framework for analyzing the dynamics of objects and advanced topics, its traditional teaching makes it difficult to learn these concepts (Lemmer, 2017), which limits the development of critical skills in students. Among the main difficulties in learning Newton’s second law is the confusion between force and velocity instead of acceleration, which leads to misconceptions (Lemmer, 2017). Likewise, Temiz and Yavuz (2014) allude to the difficulty in relating mass, force, and acceleration. Ha and Kim (2020) also observe difficulties in understanding force, mass, velocity and acceleration, complicating the interpretation of results. For example, they calculate net forces correctly, but face difficulties when changing contexts or interpreting results (Low & Wilson, 2017). This leads to analyzing the teaching of Newton’s second law and the search for innovative environments that allow a complete and precise understanding of the concepts and their relationship with physical phenomena. It is widely recognized that engaging students with Newton’s second law beyond mere numerical calculations is essential for developing a deep conceptual understanding (AlArabi et al., 2022). Research in physics education demonstrates that focusing solely on formula manipulation often fails to address underlying misconceptions and limits students’ ability to apply concepts in diverse contexts (Redish, 1994; McDermott, 1996). Therefore, instructional approaches that incorporate qualitative reasoning, conceptual discussions, and real-world problem-solving are critical for meaningful learning (AlArabi et al., 2022).

1.1. Newton’s Second Law in Teaching Physics

The laws of motion established by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 are fundamental for the teaching of dynamics, whether for university-level physics students, pre-service teachers, or schoolchildren (Close et al., 2013). Specifically, Newton’s second law emerges as a crucial tool to clarify the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it, as fundamental pillars in the study of mechanics. This law, formulated in terms of the equation, provides a clear and direct way to understand how the force applied to an object generates an acceleration, as long as the mass of the object remains constant (Temiz & Yavuz, 2014).

Despite its seemingly simple formulation, Newton’s second law, although it represents the core of classical mechanics and is essential for a deep understanding of this field, is complex to understand, hindering its ability to apply the concept in various contexts. This complexity underlines the importance of effective teaching and didactic strategies that facilitate its understanding, since it is fundamental for the mastery of mechanics and its applications (Sari & Madlazim, 2015; Alabidi et al., 2023).

Below is a brief description of two ways in which Newton’s second law is addressed in three commonly used college-level physics textbooks, which for the present investigation we will refer to as scalar and vector forms.

1.2. Scalar Form of Newton’s Second Law

For Tippens et al. (2007), the tasks on Newton’s second law show that “the acceleration of a given body is directly proportional to the force applied, which means that the relationship between force and acceleration is always constant” (p. 138). Subsequently, the definition of Newton as a unit of measurement and meaning is proposed, to finally arrive at the definition of Newton’s second law: “Whenever an unbalanced force acts on a body, in the direction of the force a force is produced an acceleration that is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body” (p. 139). From this book you will find the following mathematical expression to work on Newton’s second law. Subsequently, equality is stated:

$$F=m·a \mathrm{N}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{w}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{’}\mathrm{s} \mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d} \mathrm{l}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{w}$$

Thus, for the present study, this approximation will be associated with the scalar form of Newton’s second law. A more general form is described below.

1.3. Vector Form of Newton’s Second Law

In Giancoli (2008), force is defined as an interaction between two or more objects. Newton’s second law is then defined as: “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass. The direction of acceleration is in the direction of the net force acting on the object” (p. 86). This book also proposes that Newton’s second law is expressed mathematically:

$$\sum \overrightarrow{F}=m·\overrightarrow{a}$$

However, when reviewing what Newton wrote in 1687, the second law of motion is stated as follows: “Quantity of motion is the measure of it, arising from the velocity and quantity of matter together” (Newton, 1687, p. 83). When interpreting this statement in mathematical terms, it is observed that the statement seems to correspond to the equation $p=m·v$ and not to $F=m·a$. That is, what Newton proposed is more related to the ideas of momentum than to the notion of force, which was adopted by Euler in 1752 (Sitko, 2019).

In this context, Newton’s second law emerges as a crucial tool for clarifying the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. The current formulation of this law is different from the one originally presented by Leonhard Euler in 1752 in his article “Découverte d’un nouveau principe de mécanique”. Although some secondary and higher-education textbooks present a modern version of the statement, it does not reflect Newton’s language or mathematics. While the new formulation is not incompatible with the equation, it should not be considered an exact mathematical translation of the original statement, since the necessary concepts and mathematical tools were not available in Newton’s time, which can lead to confusion about the original construction of the law (Sitko, 2019). The same author points out that to deduce the equation, it is necessary to interpret some ideas, such as the duration of time, which are not explicit in Newton’s work.

This historical evolution of Newton’s second law—from Newton’s original phrasing to Euler’s mathematical formalization and its contemporary textbook representation—has important implications for physics education. Understanding the conceptual origins and philosophical underpinnings of Newton’s work provides students with a richer perspective on the development of scientific ideas and helps clarify the distinction between historical context and modern interpretations. Consequently, incorporating elements of the law’s historical development into teaching strategies may support a deeper conceptual understanding and reduce student misconceptions (Koponen & Mäntylä, 2006).

1.4. Tasks Associated with Newton’s Second Law

Traditional teaching approaches focused on solving quantitative problems without addressing the relevant concepts have proven insufficient to develop effective skills in this area (Palacios, 2006). This has led to the recognition of the need for pedagogical strategies that go beyond mathematical operationalism, improving understanding and the problem-solving process in physics (Distrik et al., 2022; Fang & Tajvidi, 2021).

Solving is crucial in physics learning, as it allows students to apply concepts to new situations and encourages analysis and planning (Shofiyah et al., 2024). Over the last ten years, it has been observed that problems proposed for Newton’s second law seek to challenge students to connect their knowledge with practical contexts. These activities not only focus on the application of formulas but also on the understanding of the underlying principles and the development of critical thinking skills (Abdullah, 2014). Thus, current strategies promote a deeper understanding and better preparation to face new challenges in the study of physics.

1.5. Tasks Related to Force and Motion

From a science didactic perspective, it has been found that introductory physics courses emphasize problem-solving (Phage, 2020), which is approached in multiple ways. One way to work on problem-solving in physics teaching is through the development of tasks. For this research, a task will be understood as the orientation of actions that the student must perform according to what the teacher has proposed (Carrillo & Parra, 2005).

Regarding teaching strategies, Tomara et al. (2017) propose techniques such as laboratory work and demonstrations. However, AlArabi et al. (2022) argue that physics teaching follows a traditional approach, focused on content and formulas. This discrepancy highlights the need to analyze the tasks teachers use in this context, since identifying task types is key to delving deeper into how physics is taught and contributing to an understanding of the main factors that influence its complex cognitive process (Sirnoorkar & Laverty, 2023).

Although Newton’s second law has been a foundational and extensively studied topic in physics education research for several decades (e.g., Hestenes et al., 1992), recent studies focusing on instructional strategies and student misconceptions provide valuable insights into current teaching challenges. Our literature review concentrates on the last ten years to capture contemporary approaches and emerging trends in the field. This focus does not imply that Newton’s second law is underexplored in general: rather, it aims to highlight the recent developments and shifts in research priorities within physics education.

The decision to focus on the last ten years of research was made to capture recent pedagogical developments and instructional innovations that reflect contemporary educational challenges and digital integration in classrooms. In the last decade, physics education has experienced a notable shift toward evidence-based practices, increased emphasis on conceptual understanding, and the incorporation of technology-enhanced learning environments (Karim et al., 2020). Limiting the scope to this timeframe allows for an in-depth analysis of current trends, tools, and strategies that are most relevant for informing modern physics instruction and curriculum design.

Based on the above, and in order to report on what the literature on teaching Newton’s second law has proposed in the last ten years, the following questions were posed.

What bibliometric characteristics do studies focusing on teaching Newton’s second law have? What is the state of the art regarding teaching strategies for Newton’s second law? What characteristics do teaching strategies for Newton’s second law have?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design and Protocol

To address the research questions posed, a systematic literature review was conducted with the aim of identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing the available evidence on the teaching and learning of Newton’s second law. This methodological approach allows for a structured organization of existing knowledge, facilitating the identification of gaps, trends, and areas of consensus within scientific literature.

The process was carried out following the guidelines of the PRISMA methodology (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), recognized for its rigor and transparency. This methodology ensures detailed documentation of each stage, from the search and selection of studies to their analysis, guaranteeing traceability, reproducibility, and validity of the results obtained (Page et al., 2021).

Within this framework, a systematic search was performed on the Scopus and Web of Science databases, considering articles published in English and Spanish from January 2014 to March 2024. These databases were selected for their reputation as high-impact academic sources, encompassing a broad collection of peer-reviewed publications in the fields of education and science. The selected period aimed to focus the review on contemporary research, ensuring the relevance and currency of the findings.

In line with the principles of open science, the data associated with this review are available upon request from the corresponding author.

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

Peer-reviewed journal articles published in English or Spanish between 2014 and 2024, retrieved from Scopus and Web of Science were included. The search strategy combined terms related to the “second law of Newton” and its connections to “education”, “teaching”, or “learning”. After removing duplicates, 100 articles that met predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria—detailed in

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion	Exclusion
Reference to the teaching and/or learning of physics	No reference to the teaching and/or learning of physics
The use of Newton’s second law was for teaching or learning	Newton’s second law was not mentioned
Explicit mention of Newton’s second law	Use of Newton’s second law in a secondary way, as a basis for another branch of physics
Study participants were primary, secondary, or higher-education students	Participants were not students

—were selected.

The search equation used included the following combinations: (“Newton’s second law”) AND (education), OR (“Newton’s second law”) AND (teaching), and (“Newton’s second law”) AND (learning). This initial search identified forty-four documents in Web of Science (WoS) and fifty-six in Scopus, reaching a total of one hundred articles after eliminating duplicates and unifying the results.

Additionally, to ensure the relevance and scientific rigor of the selected studies, we included only peer-reviewed articles published in academic journals indexed in Web of Science and Scopus. Conference proceedings, editorials, book chapters, and non-peer-reviewed sources were excluded. Although we did not systematically record journal impact factors, all included journals met recognized quality standards in educational and scientific research publishing. Furthermore, most of the included articles report empirical results, either through quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method approaches, as reflected in

Table 2. Analysis of academic articles.

Journal	Title	Author(s) (Year)	Method/Level	Question or Objective	What Was Measured	Strategy	Form	Type
Comput. Educ.	Integrating self-explanation functionality into a complex game environment: Keeping gaming in motion	Adams and Clark (2014)	Quant./Sec.	Measure the effect of gaming on learning Newton’s laws	Learning and self-explanation after participating in games	Gamification and self-explanation of Newton’s 2nd law problems	Vectorial	1
Phys. Teach.	Experimentally building a qualitative understanding of Newton’s second law	Gates (2014)	Qual./Sec.	Measure students’ understanding of Newton’s second law in an experimental setting	Knowledge about DCL and Newton’s 2nd law through an experimental activity	Lab activity for modeling situations involving Newton’s 2nd law	Vectorial	2
Eur. J. Phys.	Students’ misconceptions about Newton’s second law in outer space	Temiz and Yavuz (2014)	Mixed/Sec.	Analyze students’ misconceptions about the applicability of Newton’s second law in outer space	Reasoning for solving problems in an epistemic game situation	Problem-solving through activities with epistemic games	Scalar	4
Sci. Educ.	An analysis of the ontological causal relation in physics and its educational implications	Cheong (2016)	Qual./Sec.	Identify the relevance of ontology in learning Newton’s second law	Ontological knowledge about Newton’s 2nd law	Generation of relationships between ontology of knowledge and its teaching	Vectorial	1
Educ. Inf. Technol.	Enhancing future K-8 teachers’ computational thinking skills through modeling and simulations	Adler and Kim (2018)	Qual./Sup.	Understanding how programming and simulations aid learning	Computational thinking, simulations, force, and motion	Simulation and modeling of the solar system and its effects	Scalar	3
Afr. Educ. Rev.	Applying the science of learning to the learning of science: Newton’s second law of motion	Lemmer (2017)	Mixed/Prof.	Design and measure the effect of a sequence based on cognitive refinement on Newton’s second law	Efficiency of the proposed sequence for teaching Newton’s 2nd law	Inquiry and cognitive refinement	Vectorial	2
American Journal of Physics.	The role of competing knowledge structures in undermining learning: Newton’s second and third laws	Low and Wilson (2017)	Mixed/Sup.	Evaluate learning of Newton’s 2nd and 3rd laws after an intervention	Preconceptions with the FCI and learning about Newton’s laws through various quizzes	Problem-solving and identification of mental models	Scalar	1
Int. J. Sci. Appl. Sci.: C-S	Student’s concept ability of Newton’s law based on verbal and visual tests	Setyani et al. (2017)	Qual./Sup.	Describe students’ conceptual ability regarding Newton’s law based on their verbal and visual problem-solving skills	FCI results on Newton’s laws	Problem-solving through verbal and visual representation	Vectorial	4
J. Sci. Educ.	The use of understanding by design in designing the physics lesson plan about Newton’s second law	Setyanto et al. (2018)	Sup.	Develop an alternative physics lesson design on Newton’s second law using understanding by design	Understanding Newton’s laws when solving problems	Understanding-by-design learning sequence on Newton’s laws	Scalar	3
Phys. Teach.	Feeling Newton’s second law	Coletta et al. (2019)	Mixed/Sup.	Apply Newton’s second law in experimental situations	Understanding of concepts such as force, acceleration, and friction	Laboratory/inquiry activity to model movement	Scalar	2
J. Phys.: C-S	Student centered teaching activities in secondary schools and misconceptions evolution: basic mechanics	De Almeida et al. (2019)	Mixed/Sec. and Prof.	Analyze physics learning in secondary schools by identifying and correcting misconceptions in students’ mental models of mechanics	Learning in each FCI question	Modeling activities for problem-solving related to Newton’s second law	Scalar	1
J. Phys.: C-S	The identification of high school students’ knowledge of Newton’s law of science literacy using a test based on nature of science (NOS)	Murti et al. (2019)	Qual. /Sec.	To determine secondary students’ ability in Newton’s law within scientific literacy through a nature of science-based test	Students’ ability to relate the nature of science (NOS) to Newton’s Second Law	Practical activities to relate Newton’s Second Law to the nature of science (NOS).	Scalar	1
Rev. Ing. Innov.	Aprendizaje de las Leyes de Newton en la Educación Superior a través de la gamificación	Olave et al. (2019)	Quant. /Sup.	o measure students’ level of academic performance in Newton’s laws	To assess students’ learning of Newton’s laws following a game-based activity	Gamification	Scalar	4
Sci. Educ.	Challenges of designing and carrying out laboratory experiments about Newton’s second law	Ha and Kim (2020)	Qual. /Sec.	To evaluate the impact of an open laboratory on the learning of Newton’s Laws	Students’ perceptions of different stages of the experimental activity	Open laboratory activities and analysis of the physical variables involved	Vectorial	2
Univ. J. Educ. Res.	Effect of the problem-based learning (PBL) method with the integration of interactive simulation on the physical sciences conceptual understanding of the Moroccan common core learners	Mrani et al. (2020)	Quant. /Sec	To study the impact of project-based learning (PBL) through interactive simulation on the understanding of concepts related to rotational equilibrium	Variation in understanding after an intervention based on computer simulations	Problem-solving through computer simulations	Scalar	2
J. Phys.: C-S	Undergraduate students’ difficulties with motion of objects on	Phage (2020)	Mixed/sup.	To investigate conceptual knowledge of the motion of two objects on an inclined and/or horizontal surface	Use of kinematic and dynamic knowledge to interpret different situations	Problem-solving focused on students’ knowledge	Vectorial	4
	horizontal and inclined surfaces
Eur. J. Phys.	Ways of incorporating active learning experiences: an exploration of worksheets over five years in a first year Thai physics courses	Eambaipreuk et al. (2021)	Quant./sup.	To identify students’ performance when the instructional approach to circular motion varied	Variation in understanding when addressing problems related to Newton’s second law	Active learning activities and problem-solving on Newton’s second law	Vectorial	4
Int. J. Eng. Educ.	The effects of computer simulation and animation (CSA) on student learning and problem-solving in engineering dynamics	Fang and Tajvidi (2021)	Qual./sup.	Effects of computer simulation and animation (CSA) on students’ learning and problem-solving in dynamics	Students’ reflection following think-aloud problem-solving	Problem-solving and simulations: a comparison with traditional methods	Vectorial	4
J. Phys.: C-S	Analysis of physics concept of newton’s laws on the dadhak merak dance in the Reog Ponorogo cultural arts	Rahmawati et al. (2021)	Qual./sec.	To identify the concept of Newton’s laws in the Reog Ponorogo art form, specifically in the Dadhak Merak components	The dance dynamics to be associated with Newton’s Second Law	Analysis of Newton’s Second Law during the performance of an Indonesian dance	Scalar	4
J. Baltic Sci. Educ.	Enhancing the learning of Newton’s second law of motion using computer simulations	AlArabi et al. (2022)	Quant./Sec.	Evaluate the impact of computer simulations on learning Newton’s second law	Learning with a pre- and post-test after an intervention	Simulations and promotion of computational thinking	Scalar	1
Eurasia	Teaching Newtonian physics with LEGO EV3 robots: an integrated STEM approach	Addido et al. (2023)	Quant./sec.	To measure the effect of using Lego for teaching Newton’s second law	Understanding through Lego manipulation	Lego robot programming for problem-solving	Scalar	4
Eurasia	The effect of computer simulations on students’ conceptual and procedural understanding of Newton’s second law of motion	Alabidi et al. (2023)	Qual./sec.	To evaluate the impact of computer simulations in an inquiry-based learning environment	Student learning after working within a pre-test and post-test structure	Computer simulations framed within inquiry-based learning	Vectorial	3
Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res.	Investigating the efficacy of attending to reflexive cognitive processes in the context of Newton’s second law	Speirs et al. (2023)	Quant./sup.	How does an instructional intervention focused on reflexivity affect the teaching of Newton’s second law?	Learning after an intervention based on reflective learning	Problem-solving and analysis of reflection processes	Scalar	4
Int. J. Instr.	Sex and grade issues in influencing misconceptions about force and laws of motion: an application of cognitively diagnostic assessment	Wancham et al. (2023)	Quant./sec.	To diagnose misconceptions about force and the laws of motion	Students’ conceptual errors were identified, and the trends in these errors were then compared by gender	Identification of preconceptions while solving problems in a questionnaire	Scalar	1
Int. J. Dev. Netw. Sci.	Enhancing secondary school students’ attitudes toward physics by using computer simulations	Ayasrah et al. (2024)	Quant./sec.	To determine whether computer simulations improve Emirati secondary students’ attitudes towards physics	Attitude towards physics classes in environments with and without computer simulations, using the TORSA instrument	Sequence of simulation activities to measure attitudes towards physics learning	Scalar	1
Cogent Educ.	Exploring undergraduate students’ scientific reasoning in the force and motion concept	Shofiyah et al. (2024)	Mixed/Sup.	Measure how scientific reasoning associated with Newton’s second law is applied	Scientific reasoning skills in tasks associated with motion	Computational thinking, promotion of scientific thinking	Vectorial	2

.

After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a detailed evaluation of each article was conducted to determine its relevance to the review’s objectives. This process involved a full reading of the selected texts, considering their methodological characteristics, the educational context addressed, and their thematic focus (Alabidi et al., 2023; Ayasrah et al., 2024). An extraction matrix was used to tabulate key information such as the educational level of the participants, the pedagogical approach implemented, the study objectives, and findings related to the teaching or learning of Newton’s second law (Addido et al., 2023; Cheong, 2016).

The exclusion of gray literature, including conference proceedings, editorials, and book chapters, was motivated by the aim to prioritize peer-reviewed studies, thereby ensuring greater scientific credibility. This decision guaranteed the quality of the evidence considered in the review.

Subsequently, the extracted information was compared with the study objectives to ensure that each article provided direct empirical evidence on teaching strategies or on the understanding of Newton’s second law (Page et al., 2021). In cases of uncertainty regarding the relevance of any study, three researchers conducted independent assessments and then discussed their evaluations until consensus was reached, reinforcing the coherence and validity of the selection process (Adams & Clark, 2014).

The evaluation procedure was structured through a rigorous process of independent review by the three researchers considering methodological design, clarity of procedures, and contextual and thematic relevance. Discrepancies were discussed until agreements were reached, thereby strengthening internal validity and minimizing potential individual biases. This triangulation ensured the inclusion of relevant and reliable studies concerning the teaching and learning of Newton’s second law.

This approach complemented and reinforced the previously established inclusion and exclusion criteria, contributing to the transparency, reproducibility, and trustworthiness of the final synthesis. Consequently, the analysis was built on a solid empirical evidence base that allowed the identification of trends, gaps, and effective approaches in physics education at an international level.

2.3. Data Preparation

Since this systematic review aimed to produce a qualitative narrative synthesis, it was not necessary to perform statistical transformations or quantitative conversions of the extracted data. However, to facilitate the organization and comparison of findings, a process of terminological standardization was carried out during the data extraction phase (Thomas & Harden, 2008). This involved the normalization of relevant conceptual categories such as “teaching of Newton’s second law”, “conceptual understanding”, “instructional strategies”, and “learning difficulties”, with the goal of unifying descriptions across different studies (AlArabi et al., 2022). The extracted data were recorded in a common matrix, which allowed for the systematic organization of methodological approaches, educational levels addressed, and key findings, thereby ensuring a clear and coherent presentation in the final synthesis.

Figure 1 illustrates the process of identification and selection of the articles considered in the present research.

To facilitate the organization and comparison of the included studies, descriptive tables were created to record the main characteristics of each investigation: authors, year of publication, educational level, methodological approach, type of intervention, and key findings (Addido et al., 2023; Cheong, 2016). These tables provided a clear and systematic visualization of the available evidence, supporting the identification of patterns and differences across studies (Alabidi et al., 2023).

Additionally, the risk of bias was assessed through triangulation among three researchers who independently reviewed the selected articles. This evaluation considered the alignment between the methodological design and the study objectives, as well as the clarity in the description of procedures and the educational context addressed (Adams & Clark, 2014; Ayasrah et al., 2024). Subsequently, a group discussion was held to compare individual assessments and resolve discrepancies, aiming to strengthen the validity and coherence of the analysis.

The synthesis of results was conducted through a structured narrative that allowed the identification of common patterns, significant differences, and emerging trends in the educational use of Newton’s second law (AlArabi et al., 2022). The main findings of each study were treated as units of analysis and categorized according to the educational level addressed, the pedagogical approach employed (e.g., traditional, experimental, or problem-based teaching), and the outcomes related to the learning or understanding of the second law (Addido et al., 2023; Cheong, 2016). This strategy enabled a systematic comparison of contributions, respecting the methodological diversity of the studies and reinforcing the interpretative validity of the analysis.

To ensure the robustness and consistency of the synthesis, additional triangulation was implemented during key stages of coding, categorization, and interpretation. Three independent reviewers conducted autonomous critical readings of the articles and proposed emerging categories (Adams & Clark, 2014; Ayasrah et al., 2024). These codifications were then systematically compared to identify agreements, divergences, and potential individual biases. Discrepancies were discussed until consensus was reached, which strengthened internal validity and reduced the risk of subjective interpretations. This qualitative approach, grounded in rigorous research principles, allowed for the evaluation of the stability of findings across different analytical judgments, thereby increasing the reliability of the synthesis (Page et al., 2021).

Finally, study selection was carried out using explicit criteria and independent reviews by three researchers. Disagreements regarding inclusion were resolved through consensual discussion, ensuring a transparent and reliable process. This rigorous evaluation of study quality and relevance guided both data extraction and synthesis, guaranteeing that only methodologically and contextually sound research was considered. The subsequent standardization and categorization of findings further reinforced the validity of the conclusions and the strength of the resulting narrative.

3. Results

Given the considerable heterogeneity among the studies included in this systematic review—in terms of educational contexts, school levels, theoretical frameworks, methodologies employed, and research objectives—a qualitative strategy was adopted to explore and analyze this diversity (Maloney et al., 2001; Modir et al., 2017). To this end, open coding and inductive categorization of the findings were conducted, allowing the studies to be grouped based on shared characteristics across three main dimensions:

(i)

The instructional approach adopted to teach Newton’s second law.

(ii)

The learning difficulties reported by students.

(iii)

The evaluative and methodological strategies employed.

This approach enabled the identification of potential sources of variability in the results, such as differences in the educational level of the participants (primary, secondary, or higher education), the use or non-use of experimental activities, and the inclusion of technologies or simulations as instructional tools (Thomas & Harden, 2008). Additionally, the studies were analyzed according to their language of publication, country of origin, and type of educational institution, providing a broader framework to understand the contextual and methodological causes of the observed heterogeneity (Barniol & Zavala, 2014).

3.1. Bibliometric Characteristics of Studies on Newton’s Second Law

The bibliometric analysis of scholarly production related to the teaching of Newton’s second law between 2014 and 2024 revealed an upward trend, reflecting a growing concern to transform pedagogical practices in physics. This momentum has been further strengthened by recent contexts that challenged traditional teaching methods, fostering the adoption of innovative methodologies and digital resources (Lombardi et al., 2021). Within this framework, educational research has sought new ways to approach classical content such as Newton’s second law by integrating approaches that promote more meaningful and contextualized student understanding (Deslauriers et al., 2019).

Table 2 presents a summary of the selected studies, including their methodological approaches, objectives, instructional strategies, and key findings. It also details the vector and scalar representations used in the reviewed articles, allowing for the identification of pedagogical trends and potential areas of innovation in the teaching of this fundamental physics concept.

The detailed analysis presented in the discussion section delves into the pedagogical implications derived from the results in Table 2, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of how different instructional strategies are applied across various educational levels. This critical analysis highlights both the strengths and contributions of each approach as well as the challenges and limitations they face, guiding future research and curriculum development. Organizing the analysis by educational level and type of instructional strategy provides clarity and coherence, making it easier to identify patterns and priority areas for improvement in the teaching of Newton’s second law.

Among the studies analyzed, 52% focused on secondary school students and 48% on university physics students, reflecting a balanced interest in both stages. At the university level, most studies were conducted in algebra-based introductory courses, as suggested by the frequent use of the scalar form of the second law (F = ma). Few studies explicitly mentioned calculus-based instruction or the formulation based on momentum, indicating limited inclusion of advanced physics students.

Regarding the expression of the second law, 54% of secondary education studies and 50% of higher education studies employed a scalar approach, prioritizing simplicity. In contrast, vector tasks showed a greater balance, with 36% of studies favoring them, often representing idealized models. This dissociation between educational levels and types of representation reveals a significant methodological tension: although various global curricular proposals promote conceptual understanding based on models, in practice an algorithmic view centered on the formula prevails (Maloney et al., 2001). This tendency perpetuates an instructional approach focused on procedural repetition rather than the construction of physical meaning, limiting deep understanding of the phenomenon (Mora & Benítez, 2007).

Problem-solving, used in 57% of the studies, aims to develop critical and creative skills. Regarding tasks, traditional models predominate in scalar approaches (76%), while vector approaches seek a balance between applied and abstract activities. However, both approaches lack innovative tools that encourage more active and contextualized understanding.

Classifying tasks according to the representational model has important pedagogical implications: scalar tasks tend to promote limited understanding, focused on formula memorization and mechanical problem-solving (Maloney et al., 2001). In contrast, vector tasks foster spatial reasoning, causal explanation, and connections with other physical concepts (Mora & Benítez, 2007; Modir et al., 2017). This distinction directly impacts the type of learning encouraged: the scalar approach restricts the development of scientific thinking skills, whereas the vector approach can support more complex and transferable cognitive processes (Hahn & Klein, 2023).

Overall, 40% of the reviewed tasks were based on problem-solving through simulations and mental model analysis. Additionally, 27% of the articles utilized simulations or computational thinking, highlighting their application in both secondary and higher education and demonstrating a balanced technological integration in teaching.

Furthermore, 36% of the studies employed the Force Concept Inventory, a tool to characterize students’ beliefs about force and motion. Particularly noteworthy is the use of digital technologies, such as interactive simulations that represent force direction and magnitude in real time (Modir et al., 2017). These technologies hold potential for improving understanding of the vector nature of Newton’s second law; however, their positive impact largely depends on intentional pedagogical integration, as without it, they may be reduced to superficial visual aids without contributing to conceptual understanding (Mora & Benítez, 2007).

Regarding the types of tasks and visual representations—such as diagrams, schematics, or figures—that facilitate comprehension of the second law, four defined categories emerge and will be detailed below.

3.1.1. Type 1—No Model

This type of task, present in 31% of the analyzed studies, lacks visual models or structured guides to support students in solving the activities. It is limited to presenting verbal statements indicating what must be done, without providing examples, strategies, or scaffolding to facilitate understanding of the process or the expected scope.

The absence of visual or conceptual support may promote superficial and procedural learning, focusing solely on the mechanical application of formulas without encouraging comprehension of the relationships among force, mass, and acceleration. This approach, by not providing explicit representations, tends to reinforce misconceptions or oversimplified views of motion dynamics (Villegas Reinoso & Valencia Nuñez, 2024).

While such tasks can facilitate an accessible introduction to the concept, particularly at early educational levels, their exclusive use may limit the development of causal reasoning and the visualization of fundamental physical interactions. Therefore, various authors recommend complementing these proposals with visual models, vector diagrams, or experimental activities, which contribute to a deeper and more integrated understanding of Newton’s second law (Hestenes et al., 1992).

3.1.2. Type 2—Idealized Model

This type of task is based on a classical model involving a cart pushed or pulled by a hanging mass, aimed at determining the net force and/or acceleration of the system as a function of the masses involved. This setup is used for both theoretical and experimental purposes and provides an idealized yet close representation of real experimental configurations. Figure 2 presents a typical example of this model. According to the studies analyzed, 23% use this type of representation.

These models are particularly useful for establishing connections between abstract principles—such as Newton’s second law—and controlled experimental setups. They facilitate the understanding of concepts such as net force and uniform acceleration and are effective in addressing common errors in interpreting motion (Liu & Fang, 2016).

However, like any idealized model, they tend to omit real-world factors—such as friction, the mass of the string, or losses due to drag—which, if not properly clarified, can reinforce misconceptions. Students may assume that such simplified conditions represent absolute physical behaviors, making it difficult to transfer learning to authentic and complex contexts. Therefore, it is essential to discuss the model’s limitations and progressively incorporate scenarios that introduce higher levels of realism (McDermott, 1996).

3.1.3. Type 3—Dynamic Model

Type 3 corresponds to tasks that integrate interactive dynamic software, which allows for an engaging and manipulable visualization of complex concepts. This type of tool facilitates the exploration of relationships among variables such as force, friction, mass, velocity, and acceleration. Figure 3 presents a representative example: students can modify parameters and observe in real time how the net force behaves, enhancing the understanding of the links between physical quantities. According to the studies analyzed, the use of this type of task accounts for 11%.

This approach not only contributes to better conceptual understanding but also stimulates curiosity, critical thinking, and scientific reasoning (Adler & Kim, 2018; AlArabi et al., 2022; Alabidi et al., 2023). By promoting active learning, students cease to be passive recipients and become investigators who formulate questions, test hypotheses, and analyze results. For example, they can explore the relationship between the direction of the net force, the resulting acceleration, and the observed motion, even introducing more advanced notions such as derivatives.

The use of interactive models also allows for addressing and correcting common misconceptions, such as confusion between force and velocity, and reinforces the vector nature of forces. This fosters a deeper and more realistic understanding of Newton’s second law (AlArabi et al., 2022). However, due to their complexity, these environments should be introduced gradually and accompanied by guiding activities that help correctly interpret the quantities involved and their vector representations (Low & Wilson, 2017).

3.1.4. Type 4—Decontextualized Model

Type 4 is associated with tasks focused on solving exercises that involve calculating the force applied to an object, typically asking for variables such as mass or acceleration. These generic models are common in physics textbooks and tend to depict abstract or decontextualized situations. Figure 4 illustrates a typical example in which an unspecified object is being pulled, potentially leading to multiple interpretations or appearing unfamiliar to students. According to the reviewed studies, this type of task represents 35% of the total analyzed.

While this approach allows for a clear presentation of the formal elements of Newton’s second law, it may also promote rote learning and the perception that physics is merely about applying mathematical formulas. Furthermore, it often omits discussion of intuitive misconceptions, such as the belief that heavier objects fall faster, due to its abstract and experience-detached nature (Suwasono, 2023).

Numerous studies have documented persistent misconceptions that hinder students’ conceptual development regarding the second law. A recurring difficulty is the confusion between force and velocity, though it is not the only one. Many students also associate acceleration exclusively with increasing speed without considering that it involves any change in the state of motion, whether in magnitude or direction (Trowbridge & McDermott, 1980; Halloun & Hestenes, 1985). These misconceptions highlight the need to emphasize the vectorial nature of both force and acceleration in teaching and assessment.

Presenting the law purely in formal terms and without meaningful context can limit both motivation and the applicability of knowledge. Therefore, it is recommended that this type of exercise be complemented with contextualized examples that connect theoretical principles with students’ everyday and practical experiences (Kostøl & Remmen, 2022).

Table 2 presents an analysis of the academic articles included in the literature review, highlighting key information such as the objectives, methodologies, and strategies employed in the studies. This allows for the identification of common patterns and approaches, as well as the main contributions of each research study. This provides an overview of the most relevant characteristics of the studies reviewed.

3.2. Teaching Strategies for Newton’s Second Law

The strategies described in Table 2 align with the proposals of Tomara et al. (2017), as they promote innovation in learning, active engagement with theoretical concepts, and a participatory approach by students. These activities include the use of digital technologies, hands-on experiments, and interdisciplinary approaches that support inquiry, argumentation, and modeling, thereby fostering critical thinking. The combination of traditional and innovative methods creates a favorable environment for the construction of deep and transferable knowledge. By integrating these methodologies, teachers contribute to a more robust understanding of physical principles, resulting in more motivated and engaged students. This shift toward innovative approaches is essential for addressing the challenges of the contemporary world and for promoting meaningful learning in physics.

3.2.1. Focus on Computer Simulations

Several studies (AlArabi et al., 2022; Alabidi et al., 2023) highlight the use of simulations for virtual laboratories. These tools, widely adopted during the pandemic, allow students to manipulate variables autonomously and within safe environments, which increases interest and facilitates the visualization of complex phenomena. Moreover, they promote autonomous learning, especially when access to physical laboratories is limited (Mora & Benítez, 2007; Maloney et al., 2001). However, it is cautioned that excessive use of these tools or lack of pedagogical guidance can result in superficial understanding (Phage, 2020). Additionally, software quality is crucial, and simulations should never fully replace hands-on experimental experiences, which provide a sensory and contextual dimension that is difficult to replicate (Modir et al., 2017).

3.2.2. Problem-Solving

Authors such as Temiz and Yavuz (2014), Setyani et al. (2017), Phage (2020), and Fang and Tajvidi (2021) emphasize the value of this strategy for developing critical skills beyond routine exercises. Problem-solving strengthens analytical thinking, encourages the application of theoretical knowledge to real-world contexts, and contributes to the formation of sound scientific reasoning (Mora & Benítez, 2007; Maloney et al., 2001). However, many studies do not clearly specify the tasks proposed, leading to confusion due to the interchangeable use of the term’s “exercise” and “problem”. This semantic ambiguity can affect instructional design and its assessment (Modir et al., 2017; Page et al., 2021). Additionally, there is a risk of favoring algorithmic procedures without deepening the underlying conceptual reasoning.

3.2.3. Inquiry-Based Learning

The approach of inquiry is supported by authors such as Lemmer (2017) and Alabidi et al. (2023) based on the principle of “doing science to learn science”. This method prioritizes hands-on experience and active learning, even with the use of simple resources (though proposals such as Coletta et al.’s (2019) require specific equipment). Inquiry fosters the development of metacognitive skills and supports the construction of coherent mental models (Mora & Benítez, 2007). It also stimulates curiosity and motivation by involving students in processes of exploration and experimentation (Maloney et al., 2001; Modir et al., 2017; Phage, 2020). However, its implementation demands greater investment of time, resources, and specialized teacher training, which may limit its feasibility (Modir et al., 2017). Additionally, without proper guidance, some students may experience frustration or confusion (Chitrakar & Nisanth, 2023).

3.2.4. Practical and Experiential Activities

Initiatives such as robot programming (Addido et al., 2023) or the development of experimental laboratories (Coletta et al., 2019; Hofstein, 2017; Gates, 2014) reinforce the importance of hands-on learning. Furthermore, approaches such as epistemic games (Temiz & Yavuz, 2014) or artistic activities (Tavares, 2020) help diversify methodologies, making physics more engaging and meaningful. These strategies connect theoretical concepts with concrete experiences, fostering manual, collaborative, and cognitive skills (Maloney et al., 2001; Modir et al., 2017). However, their implementation can be hindered by a lack of resources or adequate infrastructure (Phage, 2020). Moreover, if not well integrated with conceptual content, they may be perceived as isolated activities with limited pedagogical value (Ramos Lage, 2023).

Table 3. Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the didactic approaches identified in the review.

Didactical Approach	Advantages	Disadvantages
Computer Simulations	Enables flexible manipulation and visualization; fosters autonomous learning	Risk of superficial understanding; depends on software quality; does not replace hands-on work
Problem-Solving	Develops critical thinking and practical application; prepares for real-world challenges	Ambiguity in definition; may focus too much on algorithms rather than reasoning
Inquiry-Based Learning	Stimulates curiosity, motivation, and active scientific thinking	Requires more time, resources, and training; risk of confusion without proper guidance
Practical and Experiential Activities	Links theory and practice; develops manual skills and collaboration	Limited by resources; risk of isolated activities if not theoretically integrated

below summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each teaching strategy identified in the studies on the teaching of Newton’s second law.

Regarding the findings, the reviewed studies consistently highlight persistent conceptual difficulties related to Newton’s second law across all educational levels. Among the most frequent are the confusion between force and velocity, as well as challenges in transferring learned concepts to new contexts. At the same time, positive impacts are reported from strategies based on simulations and inquiry-based learning, whereas limitations are noted in approaches focused solely on algorithmic problem-solving (Espinoza, 2020; Menchón et al., 2025). However, only a few studies provide longitudinal data or robust evidence of sustained conceptual change over time.

It is worth noting that in most of the analyzed studies, participants were university students enrolled in introductory physics courses with an algebra-based focus. This is reflected in the predominant use of the scalar formulation $F=m·a$ to present Newton’s second law. Such a curricular choice limits the conceptual and mathematical depth with which the phenomenon is addressed by excluding vector formulations or calculus-based expressions, such as the law stated in terms of the rate of change of linear momentum over time.

Differences were observed in the didactic approaches and types of conceptual difficulties reported between algebra-based courses and those that include calculus-based content, although the latter were scarce or absent in the reviewed sample. Therefore, it is essential for future research to explicitly indicate the mathematical level of the analyzed courses, in order to appropriately contextualize the findings and to guide pedagogical design according to students’ prior knowledge.

4. Discussion

It is important to note that this systematic review focused on the last decade (2014–2024) with the aim of identifying current trends, innovations, and challenges in the teaching of Newton’s second law. Although research on this topic has a long-standing tradition—as evidenced by the pioneering work of Hestenes et al. (1992)—our temporal scope allowed us to concentrate on the most recent pedagogical strategies and their evolution. This temporal delimitation implies certain limitations, as it does not encompass the full body of historical knowledge. However, it offers an updated perspective that contributes to identifying specific gaps in the recent literature and guiding future research that integrates both historical and contemporary approaches for a more comprehensive understanding of the teaching and learning of Newton’s second law.

The findings of this review reveal a prevailing tendency to use scalar representations to facilitate the understanding of Newton’s second law. Lemmer (2017) argues that learning difficulties often stem from preexisting misconceptions, such as those related to net force and Newton’s laws (Wancham et al., 2023). While such simplifications are commonly associated with primary and secondary education, they are also present in higher education, largely due to assumptions about students’ mathematical knowledge—thus perpetuating misconceptions. The simplification of net force supports algebraic manipulation, often reducing the second law to a first-degree equation. While the vector nature of forces may be introduced, it is generally presented in a unidimensional context, which limits students’ understanding of three-dimensional phenomena and reinforces misconceptions about the law. Assuming that scalar representation facilitates understanding is misleading, in this sense a vectorial perspective would be more appropriate to promote a deeper grasp of the physical phenomenon. Low and Wilson (2017) highlight that while students may be able to compute forces, they often struggle with conceptual understanding, underscoring the need to avoid excessive simplification and to leverage the conceptual richness of vector formulations.

It is crucial that students engage with Newton’s second law beyond mere calculations. Alabidi et al. (2023) emphasize that a focus on conceptual understanding facilitates the application of knowledge to practical situations, while strategies such as problem-based learning foster conceptual reasoning (Wieman & Perkins, 2005). Over the last decade, the use of technology in teaching has increased, yet only 3% of the studies reviewed report the use of hands-on materials in laboratory settings. While simulations proved useful during the pandemic, they should not replace practical activities, which promote active learning and the application of theoretical concepts (Ayasrah et al., 2024). Integrating hands-on activities into the curriculum enhances comprehension and better prepares students to tackle real-world problems. Despite the emphasis on innovation, much of the research remains grounded in traditional methods focused on problem-solving. The ongoing challenge is to move beyond conventional approaches and advance toward student-centered learning (Adams & Clark, 2014; Cheong, 2016).

Despite the growing interest observed in recent years, the literature review reveals a limited body of scientific research on the teaching of Newton’s second law. The identification of only 26 articles on databases such as Web of Science and Scopus highlights that this remains an underexplored field, limiting the ability to draw strong conclusions about effective instructional trends. This scarcity of studies underscores the need to promote deeper and more diversified research that critically examines not only the pedagogical strategies employed but also the conceptual representations prevalent at different educational levels.

A closer analysis of the educational levels addressed in the reviewed studies reveals a significant imbalance: most research focuses on secondary education (52%) and higher education (48%), while studies on primary education are virtually absent. This underrepresentation of the early stages of education limits our understanding of how fundamental concepts related to force and motion are introduced and developed over time. Similarly, although teacher training is mentioned in some studies, few offer in-depth empirical analyses of initial or ongoing teacher education, which constitutes another critical gap for future research.

A detailed analysis of the literature also reveals a marked thematic imbalance: most research concentrates on secondary education, particularly in strategies such as simulations and mathematical modeling, while fundamental areas such as primary education and teacher training remain significantly underrepresented. Likewise, there is limited attention to interdisciplinary approaches, cultural diversity, and longitudinal studies that assess the sustained impact of didactic interventions. This thematic concentration restricts the global understanding of the teaching–learning process and complicates the adaptation of strategies to diverse contexts and early educational levels. Therefore, it is imperative to encourage research that diversifies educational levels, integrates cultural perspectives and mixed methodologies, and includes long-term analyses to strengthen the teaching of this fundamental physical concept.

Additionally, the review reveals a concerning trend: the predominance of scalar representations of Newton’s second law, even in higher education. Although this simplification may facilitate certain algebraic processes, it tends to impoverish students’ conceptual understanding by neglecting the vectorial nature of forces. This approach limits the analysis of three-dimensional motion and reinforces persistent misconceptions. While some studies raise concerns about this issue, the discussion remains superficial and insufficient. It is essential for future research to critically address this didactic practice and propose pedagogical alternatives that emphasize the conceptual richness of the vectorial form, promoting deeper and more meaningful learning.

These misconceptions not only limit the conceptual understanding of acceleration but also affect students’ ability to correctly apply Newton’s second law in varied contexts, particularly in situations involving changes in the direction of motion. Confusion regarding the vector nature of acceleration can lead to oversimplified interpretations and persistent errors, such as assuming that acceleration always implies an increase in speed. Several studies highlight that didactic strategies involving dynamic models and explicit vector representations help to mitigate these errors, supporting a more comprehensive and robust understanding. This underscores the importance of emphasizing both the direction and magnitude of forces and accelerations in instruction to promote lasting and conceptually accurate learning.

Although this review encompasses 26 recent articles on the teaching of Newton’s second law, most of them exhibit limited critical depth. Few incorporate interdisciplinary perspectives or consider differences in student profiles and educational contexts (Low & Wilson, 2017). The majority focus on describing activities or resources, but do not robustly evaluate their impact on conceptual learning or on the transfer of knowledge to new situations, making it difficult to formulate well-founded pedagogical recommendations.

4.1. Educational Levels

In addition to the general analysis of didactic approaches, it is relevant to consider specific findings according to the educational level of the selected studies. At the secondary level, most research focuses on addressing alternative conceptions through active strategies such as inquiry-based learning or simulations (Maloney et al., 2001). These approaches report improvements in conceptual understanding, although challenges remain in transferring this knowledge to new contexts (Modir et al., 2017).

At the tertiary level, studies tend to emphasize the development of mathematical modeling skills and the integration of dynamics with other areas such as kinematics or energy (Mora & Benítez, 2007). Although academic improvements are observed, conceptual difficulties persist even among advanced students (Bouchée et al., 2022; Low & Wilson, 2017).

With regard to teacher education, studies highlight the importance of pedagogical content knowledge, noting that prospective teachers often reproduce conceptual errors similar to those observed in secondary students. This underscores the urgent need for deeper interventions in initial teacher training (Balanquit & Nobis, 2025; Svensson & Holmqvist, 2021).

At all educational levels, understanding Newton’s second law remains problematic despite the implementation of active or technological strategies (Maloney et al., 2001; Modir et al., 2017). This supports the view that no single approach is sufficient: rather, combinations of interconnected strategies are required (Low & Wilson, 2017). For example, simulations are more effective when supplemented with guided discussion or problem-solving activities. When used in isolation, their impact is limited (Maloney et al., 2001).

Finally, several studies agree on the crucial role of the teacher as a facilitator of learning, emphasizing that ongoing training and support for educators remain critical factors (Phage, 2020).

Table 4. Main findings by educational level.

Ed. Level	Main Findings	Identified Strengths	Limitations/Challenges
Secondary education	Focus on eliminating alternative conceptions through inquiry, experimentation, and simulations	Active strategies enhance motivation and initial understanding	Difficulty in transferring understanding to new situations
Higher education	Use of mathematical modeling and integration with other physical concepts (energy, kinematics, etc.)	Improved academic performance; promotes systemic thinking	Conceptual errors persist even among advanced students; weak linkage between theory and practice
Teacher education	Emphasis on pedagogical content knowledge; analysis of common errors in pre-service teachers	Greater awareness of the need for diversified and reflective strategies	Future teachers reproduce conceptual errors; limited training in designing contextualized strategies

summarizes the findings, strengths, and limitations identified in the review, separated by educational level.

Considering the results of this review, it is necessary to delve deeper into teaching strategies for Newton’s second law, focusing especially on its vector form, which allows for a comprehensive approach to the concepts.

4.2. Limitations

This study has several limitations that must be taken into account. First, the selection of articles was limited to two specific databases—Web of Science and Scopus—which may have excluded relevant studies published in other repositories or in languages other than English and Spanish (Tranfield et al., 2003; Petticrew & Roberts, 2006). This restricted selection, along with the relatively small number of included studies (n = 26), limits the ability to generalize the observed trends globally and aligns with previous critiques regarding the heterogeneity of the science education literature.

From an epistemological and methodological perspective, a notable limitation lies in the prevalence of scalar representations in the reviewed studies, which overlooks the fundamentally vectorial nature of Newton’s second law. This restriction not only reduces the depth of conceptual understanding but may also be related to the didactic difficulties previously reported in the literature (Low & Wilson, 2017).

Moreover, as a systematic review, this study did not include direct empirical analyses or comparative quantitative data that would have allowed for precise evaluation of the relative effectiveness of the instructional strategies implemented. This gap highlights the need for experimental and mixed-method research to validate and contextualize emerging strategies (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018).

Finally, the critical analysis revealed significant differences in didactic strategies across educational levels, exposing methodological tensions among secondary, tertiary, and teacher education. In addition, the review identified a lack of interdisciplinary integration and critical approaches that address the field’s heterogeneity. This underscores the urgency of fostering research that promotes interdisciplinary dialogue and supports progressive pedagogical transitions from concrete to abstract reasoning adapted to diverse educational contexts (Becker & Park, 2011).

4.3. Projections

Based on the findings of this review, it is necessary to further investigate instructional strategies related to Newton’s second law with particular emphasis on its vectorial form, which enables a more comprehensive and conceptually robust approach.

A promising line of research involves exploring the integration of technology and interdisciplinary approaches to transform the learning of this law, examining the impact of interactive methods such as dynamic simulators on students’ motivation and conceptual understanding.

Another relevant area is the assessment of the effectiveness of dynamic and idealized models in instruction, investigating how interactive simulations can facilitate understanding and connect concepts to real-world contexts, thereby improving the quality of practical activities.

It would also be valuable to examine the feasibility and benefits of a hybrid approach that combines scalar and vectorial instruction, making learning more interactive and applicable to everyday contexts, and enriching the educational experience.

Advancing the teaching of vectorial representations is essential, including exploration of how curricular reforms in different countries might support deeper understanding of fundamental concepts. Similarly, introducing vectorial reasoning at earlier educational levels, such as primary education, through hands-on resources like laboratory activities and dynamic software should be considered.

Finally, given the dominance of scalar representations in research, it is important to investigate teachers’ motivations for preferring this approach and how such choices may impact conceptual development, especially in light of the mathematical competencies required to address Newton’s law in its vectorial form.

5. Conclusions

The teaching of Newton’s second law remains a fundamental challenge in science education due to its high level of conceptual abstraction and the difficulties students face in applying it across diverse contexts (Close et al., 2013; Díaz-Delgado & Maringer-Duran, 2021; Phage, 2020). The systematic review conducted in this study indicates that although significant progress has been made over the last decade in terms of instructional strategies, relevant limitations persist in both their implementation and evaluation.

The findings show that recent advances have focused particularly on the use of simulations, mathematical modeling, and practical approaches such as educational robotics. However, a strong reliance on scalar representations continues to prevail, which restricts the understanding of the law’s vectorial nature—consistent with previous findings (Low & Wilson, 2017). Additionally, instructional approaches vary across educational levels, with an emphasis on addressing alternative conceptions at the secondary level and on conceptual modeling in higher education and teacher training. These differences suggest the need to design culturally situated and progressive teaching interventions that integrate both approaches.

The most frequently used strategies—such as computer simulations, experimental activities, modeling in mathematics and science, problem-based learning, and STEM-oriented approaches—have proven effective in fostering conceptual, procedural, and attitudinal understanding of the law (AlArabi et al., 2022; Alabidi et al., 2023; Addido et al., 2023). In particular, simulations support the interactive visualization of complex phenomena, while hands-on strategies such as educational robotics and student-centered laboratories promote active and meaningful learning (Gates, 2014).

Nevertheless, the persistent dependence on scalar representations—even in higher education—may hinder a deeper understanding of the vectorial nature of the law and reinforce limited conceptions (Low & Wilson, 2017). This finding points to the need for creating epistemological and pedagogical environments that integrate both scalar and vectorial perspectives, enabling students to apply their knowledge to three-dimensional and real-world situations.

With respect to educational levels, strategies in secondary education primarily focus on addressing alternative conceptions through inquiry and simulations. In contrast, higher education tends to emphasize mathematical modeling, conceptual integration with other areas of physics, and the use of descriptive and diagnostic strategies in initial teacher training. Despite these variations, conceptual difficulties persist, indicating that no single approach is sufficient on its own.

Finally, this review highlights the need to expand and diversify research on the teaching of Newton’s second law, identifying the integration of scalar and vectorial approaches as a key opportunity for educational innovation. Furthermore, it is essential that proposed strategies be sustainable, culturally contextualized, and clearly aligned with different educational levels, fostering a gradual transition from the concrete to the abstract and from everyday understanding to formal reasoning.