The Role of Self-Directed Learning in Enhancing Entrepreneurial Learning of Students in Higher Education Institutions

Abstract

In recent years, entrepreneurial learning in higher education institutions has been promoted and supported to help students become job creators rather than job seekers. The main purpose of entrepreneurial learning is to develop entrepreneurial competencies in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to attain the entrepreneurial goal of new value creation. This value extends beyond only economic value and job creation; it can, therefore, also benefit students who do not become entrepreneurs but who choose to think entrepreneurially. However, an enduring problem is ensuring that the entrepreneurial learning process is interactive, effective, and meaningful to the students. Correspondingly, self-directed learning (SDL) can be used in higher education to enhance entrepreneurial learning. This paper discusses the analyses of the role and importance of self-directed learning in the process of entrepreneurial learning for students in higher education institutions, informed by an exploratory systematic literature review. The findings reveal that SDL can play an important role in enhancing entrepreneurial learning by initiating the learning process to develop students’ entrepreneurial skills, mindset, motivation, creativity, and innovation, which serve as competencies for success as entrepreneurial thinkers. Based on the findings, the author concludes that SDL plays an important role in enhancing entrepreneurial learning in higher education institutions. Adopting SDL as a key strategy for teaching and learning in higher education can improve the effectiveness of entrepreneurial learning and help develop students into entrepreneurial thinkers. The practical implications are that the use of SDL in entrepreneurial learning can develop a spirit of creativity, create value on several levels, and empower students to become job creators instead of job seekers as higher education institutions prepare them for life after graduation.

1. Introduction

Entrepreneurial learning has been promoted in today’s higher education institutions (HEIs) due to high rates of youth unemployment after graduating from higher education. Ratten and Usmanij (2021) also note that in recent years, entrepreneurial learning (EL) in HEIs has been promoted and supported to help students become job creators rather than job seekers. As the unemployment rate continues to increase in most developing countries, it becomes increasingly difficult for 21st-century graduates to secure jobs in companies, organizations, and institutions (Ratten & Usmanij, 2021; Zozimo et al., 2023). In the search for a solution, academics and other stakeholders debate the possibility of developing students into entrepreneurs so that they can create their own employment (Zozimo et al., 2023). Consequently, the challenge of unemployed graduates compels HEIs to design and implement an effective and high-quality education system that develops entrepreneurial skills among students.

Nonetheless, some scholars argue that the present educational system at universities and Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges does not adequately develop students’ motivations, knowledge, skills, competencies, and behaviors related to innovation and entrepreneurship (Fayolle et al., 2016; Igwe et al., 2022; Miço & Cungu, 2023; Ratten & Usmanij, 2021). The implication is that, even though EL offers an effective and realistic means to develop the entrepreneurial mindsets and skills necessary to help students become self-employed, create economic and other value when there are no employment opportunities, universities often do not sufficiently promote EL for students’ skills development.

One of the reasons EL in higher education is important is student empowerment through the acquisition of business skills to be utilized whether in wage or self-employment. Bauman and Lucy (2019) point out that EL has received significant attention in HEI policies in several countries in the 21st century. The reason is that EL helps students acquire entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, and behaviors necessary to potentially venture into enterprises which are considered contributors to economic growth and employment creation (Lackéus, 2015; UNESCO-UNESVOC, 2020), hence reducing graduate unemployment. Entrepreneurial learning empowers students to become job creators instead of job seekers (Pech et al., 2021) and creates value other than only economic (Bauman & Lucy, 2019; Zozimo et al., 2023). This student empowerment is a result of the EL process, which consists of learning to think and act like an entrepreneur, to develop students’ entrepreneurial mindset by using similar skills to create value, but not necessarily for profit or only for economic value. Pech et al. (2021, p. 66) note that the process of EL intends “to foster self-esteem and confidence by drawing on the individual’s talents and creativity, while building the relevant skills and values that will assist learners [or students] in expanding their perspectives on schooling”.

Entrepreneurial learning is, therefore, not only about educating students how to start and grow businesses but also about developing a spirit of creativity. According to UNESCO-UNESVOC (2020) and Lantu et al. (2022), EL supports students in developing relevant skills, competencies, and mindsets to turn innovative ideas into different kinds of value creation. Moreover, the European Commission (2021) notes that facilitators give the responsibility to students by motivating them to take initiative by themselves and guiding them toward identifying and seizing entrepreneurship opportunities. The author of the current paper argues that the use of an SDL approach can help achieve the intentions of EL in HEIs because it encourages students’ creativity and cooperation with others in and outside formal learning contexts.

Another reason EL in higher education is important is that it stimulates the economy and ensures social justice by empowering students to become self-reliant. The outcomes of EL are the development of knowledge, skills, and competencies that graduates can utilize to create their own employment or income-generating activities, hence attain socio-economic justice. In this connection, Du Toit (2019) argues that EL is important to empower South African students and graduates with the knowledge and skills required to reduce the high levels of youth unemployment and poverty. Du Toit’s argument implies that EL fosters the development of creativity, initiative, self-directedness in learning and problem-solving skills, which are crucial for all students, whether they become entrepreneurs or are employed by someone else in the future. However, EL can be effective if lecturers implement appropriate teaching-learning approaches that stimulate students’ entrepreneurial mindset and promote students’ involvement in the growth of small and medium-sized businesses (Bauman & Lucy, 2019). Entrepreneurial learning can also create other, more extensive value, such as social or educational value.

However, for the EL to help achieve the desired goal, the teaching-learning process must be interactive, effective, and meaningful to the students. In other words, appropriate learning strategies play a role in developing students’ entrepreneurial skills and mindsets (Du Toit, 2019). In this connection, the researcher analyzed the role and importance of self-directed learning (SDL) as a core approach to make EL more meaningful for students. To guide HEIs to develop students’ entrepreneurial skills, competencies, and entrepreneurial mindset, this chapter reports literature-based research. Meeting the main purpose of EL, which is to develop some level of entrepreneurial competencies in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that affect students’ ability to perform the entrepreneurial job of new value creation (Brandt, 2020), necessitates that learning becomes interactive, effective, and meaningful to students. This chapter reviews the components of SDL (personal autonomy, self-management in learning, independent pursuit of learning, and learner control of instruction) (Brandt, 2020) that can influence the outcomes of EL when compared to lecturer-based approaches.

Consequently, SDL has been used in some HEIs as a learning approach that helps students to seek self-development by taking charge of their learning processes to achieve their learning goals. In simple terms, SDL refers to students’ ability to take initiative to identify their own learning needs and goals, their ability to determine the sources they need in the learning process, their ability to select and use suitable learning strategies and evaluate learning outcomes with or without help from an outsider preference (Brandt, 2020; Tekkol & Demirel, 2018). In other words, for students to achieve their goals, they take responsibility for their own learning process and embrace autonomy. The characteristics of SDL, such as self-motivation and self-management, are significant in EL. However, using SDL to enhance EL has not yet been explored in depth.

Literature shows that the characteristics of SDL help enhance the effectiveness of EL of students in higher education. Nishantha and Fernando (2020) and Morris and König (2020) argue that SDL is a requirement or prerequisite for EL. As discussed further in Section 7 below, Tseng (2013) explains the connection by pointing out that SDL is “an approach in which student entrepreneurs take personal responsibility and collaboratively control cognitive (self-monitoring) and contextual (self-management) processes in constructing and confirming meaningful and worthwhile learning outcomes”. Unlike lecturer-directed learning, in which lecturers teach students about the nature of flight (for example), when fostering SDL, lecturers facilitate their students’ learning on how to fly practically by helping them to develop their wings (Gibbons, 2002). Self-directed learning can thus contribute to enhancing EL, hence empowering students to be creative in their pursuit of entrepreneurial endeavor.

It is important to clarify two concepts that are frequently used in this chapter, namely, learning and entrepreneurial mindset. Learning is seminally defined as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38). Similarly, Gross (2012) notes that learning is a process of acquiring skills, knowledge, understanding, behavior, and attitudes. Entrepreneurial mindset refers to “interrelated beliefs and assumptions that inform our decisions and guide our behavior” (UNESCO-UNESVOC, 2020, p. 12). From this relatively broad definition, the mindset associated with EL has broad benefits, extending beyond only job creation, and it is, therefore, a sought-after graduate competency (Nishantha & Fernando, 2020, p. 30). An entrepreneurial mindset can be created and improved through EL. This chapter uses the definition of entrepreneurial mindset according to Kuratko et al. (2021, p. 1684), who suggest that “entrepreneurial mindset entails a way to formulate how to think and then actually think about an opportunity”.

2. Problem Statement

One of the critical problems related to EL is using a suitable teaching-learning approach to develop HEI students’ entrepreneurial thinking. Teaching-learning methods for EL should be consistent with the use of the acquired skills and knowledge, be designed according to students’ needs for self-employment, and prepare them to be adaptable to a changing world (Esmi et al., 2015; Miço & Cungu, 2023; Schoeniger et al., 2021). The implication is that there is a need to apply a teaching-learning approach suitable for equipping students with skills and competencies and stimulating their entrepreneurial mindset to prepare them for life and employment—be it self-employment (entrepreneurship) or employment by other employers. In other words, the teaching-learning approach applied in EL should develop motivation, engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving, cultivate creativity and curiosity, and other essential 21st-century skills in the learning process.

Developing teaching-learning strategies in the field of EL is a challenge for academics in HEIs (Bauman & Lucy, 2019; Lackéus, 2015; Miço & Cungu, 2023; Toutain & Fayolle, 2017; Ratten & Usmanij, 2021), and there is little agreement on how exactly EL should be facilitated. As EL is often merged into existing courses allocated to lecturers (Rodrigues, 2023), the challenge not only resides in the subject matter, resources and experiences but also in teaching and learning approaches that will help students acquire entrepreneurial skills, competencies and behaviors “contributing to their employability and advantage to the workforce, the community and ultimately the economy” (Rodrigues, 2023, p. 3). Selected approaches for EL must also help students to cope with several challenges and demands they will face as they leave tertiary education (Lackéus, 2015). In other words, the challenge is to use teaching-learning approaches to promote EL and to develop lifelong entrepreneurial thinkers. To bridge this gap in knowledge, a literature review was used to explore the characteristics of SDL that are significant in supporting EL in HEIs.

3. Theoretical Framework

The author used the social constructivist theory to analyze the role of SDL in facilitating EL in HEIs and in motivating students to embrace entrepreneurial thinking. In 1968, Lev Vygotsky believed that individual students learn best when they interact with others who are more knowledgeable than them (Akpan et al., 2020; Snowman & McCown, 2013). Social constructivism emphasizes the need for students to use their previous and existing knowledge and experience to create new knowledge while interacting with their peers (Akpan et al., 2020). The current author supports that the social constructivist theory is suitable for the study because most university students do not have a strong or existing foundation of EL, as the South African school system has a scarcity of EL. This implies that SDL needs to support university students in establishing a shared foundational knowledge of EL on which new learning can be constructed. To facilitate the discovery and creation of new knowledge, it is important that lecturers motivate students to conduct EL activities about social problems or issues as enablers for learning.

4. Research Methods

The researcher used an interpretive research paradigm for an in-depth, holistic exploration of the phenomenon (Creswell, 2012/2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2014) around the possibilities of implementing the core principles of SDL to promote EL in higher education. The researcher used a qualitative approach in terms of an exploratory systematic review of the literature concerning the role of SDL in EL. The focus of the literature review as a research method is on comparative content analysis (Nieuwenhuis, 2020; Sarantakos, 2005). Comparative content analysis consists of comparing the views and information of different authors on a certain issue and analyzing the reliability, validity, and credibility of the information (Leedy & Ormrod, 2014; Sarantakos, 2005).

The researcher analyzed the literature available from books, journal articles, published peer-reviewed research, and electronic sources on the role of SDL in EL in higher education. To this end, the author used the databases of Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, and EBSCOhost as search instruments to find all research conducted between 2014 and 2024 concerning SDL to enhance EL. Although there is existing research on this issue in the literature, the gap was the lack of a clear understanding of the characteristics of SDL that enhance EL of students in HEIs. The key element sought in the literature was the potential role of SDL in enhancing the EL process of students in HEIs. The criteria utilized as keywords were the following: combinations:

• ‘Self-directed learning’ and ‘entrepreneurial learning of students in higher education’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ or ‘entrepreneurial skills and knowledge in higher education’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ and ‘developing entrepreneurial behavior in students’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ or ‘developing an entrepreneurial mindset in students’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ and ‘entrepreneurial competencies in higher education’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ and ‘entrepreneurial learning strategies of students’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ and ‘instructional strategies to foster entrepreneurial skills’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ and ‘Entrepreneurial learning for TVET institutions’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ and ‘pedagogical approaches to entrepreneurship’
• ‘Self-directed learning’ or ‘pedagogical approaches in entrepreneurial learning’

Using the combinations and keywords above, the searches provided a total of 107 results, excluding master’s dissertations and doctoral theses. The author considered all other types of research outputs accessed via the databases, such as journal articles, technical reports, conference proceedings, and handbooks on SDL. After obtaining publications generated by the databases, the process of elimination commenced, which entailed reviewing their titles, abstracts, introductions, and conclusions to match the focus of the present study. The other 107 sources were discarded for various reasons, such as focusing on entrepreneurship ventures, small business management, etc.

Other key issues the author explored in the literature were the role of SDL in designing learning activities for EL in higher education, which is linked to the acquisition of relevant skills and competencies in EL. After the process of elimination, only 35 results remained. After the critical review of available literature on SDL’s role in enhancing students’ EL, themes emerged regarding the implications of SDL in HEIs. The themes that emerged were the importance of SDL in HEIs, characteristics of EL in HEIs, the connection between SDL and EL, the role of SDL in making EL an active process for skills and knowledge application, and teaching-learning strategies of SDL to foster entrepreneurial competencies and behavior.

5. Self-Directed Learning in Higher Education Institutions

According to Knowles (1975), SDL is a process that allows students to take responsibility for their own learning to meet their learning needs and achieve their learning goals. As self-directed learners, students control the task of learning and embrace individual autonomy and preferences (Brandt, 2020; Tekkol & Demirel, 2018). Brandt (2020) notes that SDL refers to an approach of learning that is individual, purposeful, and developmental. Self-directed learning emphasizes autonomy, choice, and self-actualization, but also acknowledges the role of the other (teacher or peer) in the SDL process. Knowles (1975, p. 18) refers to SDL as:

a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating their learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.

The definition by Knowles (1975) reveals that SDL enables students to develop their autonomy, motivation, lifelong learning skills, and self-confidence. It empowers students to become active participants in their learning process (Francis, 2017). SDL is an internal process in which an individual develops certain abilities. The analysis of three definitions from the literature (Brandt, 2020; Knowles, 1975) reveals a difference between lecturer-directed learning and SDL. In a traditional learning environment, a lecturer takes the initiative to develop a student’s skills, knowledge, and abilities by formulating the course goals and content, identifying human and material resources for learning, the mode of presentation, and assessment tools (Brandt, 2020). In contrast, during the SDL process, lecturers and peers have a supportive role for students to set their own goals, take control of their learning process, and learn to challenge themselves for possible performance (Morris, 2024).

Knowles (1975) and Garrison (1997) define SDL and identify six important actions involved in the self-directed students’ learning process. These include diagnosing learning needs, setting clear goals for themselves, self-management for improving performance, self-motivation, and self-assessment. The paragraphs below explain these elements.

(a) Diagnosing the learning needs: Students should be aware of their learning needs to acquire relevant skills, abilities, and behaviors to solve real problems in life. How the learning needs process is approached is also important in determining the accuracy of learning results. Therefore, one of the very significant factors enhancing the success of a learning program is the process of diagnosing the learning needs (Arshad et al., 2015). If students can identify their learning needs, then the probability of learning success of the learning increases.

(b) Setting clear goals for themselves: In the context of SDL, Brandt (2020) indicates that goals should be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timebound) to provide clear guidance for what should be aimed at addressing learning needs. Students should be guided to set realistic goals emanating from them so that they may be committed to the learning process to yield desired results (Tseng, 2013). Accordingly, setting realistic goals for EL will help monitor their own learning process and give a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of learning in terms of skills acquisition, competencies, and entrepreneurial initiatives.

(c) Identifying human and material resources for learning: Lack of resources can impede the learning process and effectiveness in achieving set goals. Self-directed learners should be able to find and identify relevant resources. These can either be material or human resources, such as the lecturer, facilitator, and/or peers. The support and feedback of lecturers as facilitators of learning and peers are essential for developing the skills and knowledge of self-directed students (Brandt, 2020). The selection of material resources will depend on learning approaches to acquiring entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, and mindset, such as problem-based, project-based, and inquiry-based instruction, adopted to attain the goals.

(d) Self-management for improving performance: This concept includes self-control, self-monitoring, and having a sense of responsibility during the implementation of learning tasks. Self-management entails task control, focusing on internal and external activities that influence the attainment of learning goals, a commitment to the learning process, and the management of learning resources and support (Brandt, 2020; Tseng, 2013). Consequently, Nishantha and Fernando (2020) argue that SDL requires courage, confidence, and determination in managing their own time, resources, and efforts needed to complete their learning activities.

(e) Self-motivation to achieve goals: Motivation plays an important role in developing skills, knowledge, and competencies, especially when learning complex tasks (Beckers et al., 2022). Highly self-directed students display intrinsic motivation (Tseng, 2013), which enables them to pursue their own high-interest goals. In other words, intrinsic motivation is a catalyst for students’ autonomy and personal responsibility to manage learning activities and the degree of student control.

(f) Self-assessment of the learning process: Self-directed learners should be able to evaluate whether learning goals have been met, and assessment as a reflection of learning is an important means of learning for improvement. Students need to initiate self-evaluation of goal achievement (Nishantha & Fernando, 2020; Tseng, 2013). Students can use performance tasks to assess their application of skills and knowledge in real-world environments (Brandt, 2020). Self-directed learners can evaluate the effectiveness of the learning process in terms of entrepreneurial skills acquisition, competencies, and entrepreneurial initiatives if they are responsible for setting the goals.

6. Entrepreneurial Learning in Higher Education Institutions

Defining EL is complex because there is no agreed-upon definition of the concept. Politis (2005, p. 401) describes EL as “…a continuous process that facilitates the development of necessary knowledge for being effective in starting up and managing new ventures.” Similarly, UNESCO-UNESVOC (2020) notes that a comprehensive definition of EL entails a learning process (acquiring skills and knowledge) to become an entrepreneur to create a venture. This definition emphasizes the entrepreneurial skills and knowledge for self-employment and small business start-ups. In the introductory section, a general definition of EL is provided, which is the development of the relevant skills, competencies, and mindset by students to turn innovative ideas into entrepreneurial activities. In the same vein, Purwanto (Marques et al., 2023) argues that at higher education institutions, the main purpose of entrepreneurial learning should be to develop entrepreneurial mindsets and capacities.

The analysis of literature sources shows that entrepreneurial learning at higher education can have diverse objectives, the frequently mentioned are (a) developing entrepreneurial behavior among students (raising consciousness and motivation); (b) training students in the relevant skills to set up small and medium businesses and manage their growth; (c) developing the entrepreneurial capability to identify and exploit opportunities (Daspita et al., 2023; Du Toit, 2023; Lackéus, 2015; Marques et al., 2023). These three main objectives suggest that EL needs to stimulate the entrepreneurial mindsets of students and encourage innovative business start-ups. In other words, EL should not only help students acquire skills, abilities, and a mindset but also turn ideas into action and become more creative and self-confident in an entrepreneurial venture. To this end, Wang and Chugh (2014) argue that the core matter is not about knowing what entrepreneurs do learn during the process of exploring opportunities for entrepreneurial ventures or management, but how and when learning takes place to the understanding of the entrepreneurial process.

From the analysis of the literature, it is noteworthy to emphasize that, while entrepreneurship education deals with venture creation, EL involves the development of skills, knowledge, and an entrepreneurial mindset, but not necessarily for becoming an entrepreneur. In the current chapter, the author views EL in the HEI context as a dynamic process that involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for identifying, creating, and pursuing opportunities to bring about innovation. Entrepreneurial learning is a form of active learning that motivates individual students to think creatively and take risks in order to achieve success in entrepreneurial ventures.

An analysis of selected studies on EL at the higher education level suggests that EL is relevant for students because it develops their entrepreneurial skills and competencies for value creation, self-employment, and, possibly, business start-up. As graduate unemployment is a monumental problem—not only in South Africa, but globally—exploring ways to address this issue is crucial. Entrepreneurial learning develops students’ potential for value creation and their entrepreneurial mindset, whether they will work for themselves as entrepreneurs or will be employed by someone else (Du Toit, 2023; Lackéus, 2015). Furthermore, EL helps students become creative thinkers and instills confidence by empowering them to become self-reliant (UNESCO-UNESVOC, 2020). To develop citizens who can face the economic challenges of the 21st century, HEIs (universities, TVET colleges, and adult community colleges) need EL as a core curriculum to transform their graduates into ‘job creators’ rather than ‘job seekers’ to revive the economy and reduce unemployment. Entrepreneurial learning is also beneficial to other citizens because it develops skills, competencies, and a mindset that everyone needs to help them adapt to a changing world of employment (Lackéus, 2015; Zozimo et al., 2023). Another benefit gained in EL for students and others is shifting the emphasis from the self (self-employment, own income generation, for example) to include a broader field of beneficence (Du Toit, 2022). In the context of HEIs, EL should aim to change the behavior and attitudes of the students to consider entrepreneurship as an alternative to entering the labor market after graduation (Rodrigues, 2023).

The process of EL should allow students to develop entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, and competencies (attitudes) necessary to turn ideas into action (enterprise venture or value creation). An effective learning process will assist students in making a successful transition from the HEI environment into the workforce (Pech et al., 2021). According to the Foundation for Young Australians (2015), the set of entrepreneurial skills and characteristics outlined in

Table 1. Entrepreneurial skills.

Confidence and Agency	Digital Literacy	Financial Literacy
Creativity and innovation	Teamwork	Project management
Problem-solving skills	Presentation skills	Global enthusiasm
Communication skills	Critical thinking	Financial literacy
Decision making	Negotiation skills	Cash flow management
Planning and strategizing	Business planning	Business plan compilation
Human relations	Networking skills	Time management
Marketing management	Leadership skills	Risk taking

Source: Adapted from Lantu et al. (2022); Foundation for Young Australians (2015, p. 8).

and

Table 2. The components of entrepreneurial competencies for HEI students.

		Progression Level of Competencies in Students
		Level 1	Level 2	Level 3
Developing ideas	Mindset and attitudes	• Able to identify personal strengths and weaknesses	• Able to identify personal strengths and weaknesses	• Being motivated to develop own abilities
		• Setting goals to improve own skills where needed	• Pursuing own goals persistently	• Able to set personal long-term targets to achieve the goals
		• Being comfortable in taking responsibility for a task	• Willing to take responsibility and work to overcome potential difficulties	• Able to take a task and complete it successfully
		• Able to face possible competition in the implementation stage		• Being ready to stand up for others and societal issues
		• Knowing that people have different career options
		• Able to describe my own professional goals
	Identifying opportunities	• Able to develop ideas and provide justifications for why they should be implemented	• Able to develop ideas into business proposals and evaluate innovative approaches and market potential	• Able to read, interpret, and evaluate a business plan
		• Able to identify and seize opportunities	• Able to evaluate business risks using case studies and make appropriate decisions	• Able to design my own business plan within a social enterprise business model
		• Being aware of risks and taking responsibility for my own actions	• In a discussion with others, I can find arguments for my ideas in a structured way	• Able to interpret the entrepreneurial risks of my own business model and can take decisions based on controlled risk management
		• Able to present a draft concept and understand the purpose of a business plan	• Able to develop ideas into business proposals and evaluate innovative approaches and market potential	• Able to read, interpret, and evaluate a business plan
Implementing ideas	Organizing	Able to plan goals and implement a supervised project	• Able to plan goals, develop work packages for their implementation, and carry out a project	• Able to plan and project manage a small-scale project
		• Able to come up with ideas for effective marketing	• Able to plan strategic marketing based on tactical approaches	• Able to develop a logical project plan (aims, measures, output), take necessary decisions, and organize project implementation
			• Able to plan and correctly deal with finances
	Team working	• Able to work with others and maximize the use of individual skills	• Able to develop appropriate strategies to deal with difficult situations while working together	• Able to develop a marketing and financial plan (using software)
		• Able to convince others when making a group decision	• Being good at networking and developing cooperation. I can use modern technologies	• Able to initiate and develop project-based collaborations with others and evaluate individual roles
		• Able to communicate well with other people	• Able to develop appropriate strategies to deal with difficult situations while working together

Sources: Adapted from Lackéus (2015, p. 13); Tekkol and Demirel (2018, p. 2); UNESCO-UNESVOC (2020, p. 14).

will enable HEI students of the future.

Conversely, entrepreneurial competencies consist of developing ideas and implementing ideas. Table 2 presents the entrepreneurial competencies that students should acquire from HEIs.

The analysis of Table 1 and Table 2 points to the roles of HEI lecturers in using suitable teaching and learning strategies to help students acquire entrepreneurial skills and competencies. Entrepreneurial learning requires lecturers to use active learning approaches that place students at the center of the teaching and learning process (Lackéus, 2015). Entrepreneurial lecturers need professional competencies allowing them to guide students through the active SDL process that leads students to meet their learning needs and achieve their learning objectives. Acting as facilitators and mediators of the learning process, they need to map out and identify these entrepreneurial skills and competencies that students will require to become entrepreneurs (Tekkol & Demirel, 2018; Lackéus, 2015). Furthermore, Table 1 and Table 2 highlight the benefits of EL, which include multiple skills development, idea generation and implementation, empowerment and innovation, among others. Firstly, EL empowers students to take control of their own lives and destinies and create opportunities for themselves and others. Secondly, EL drives the development of new services and products that can drive economic growth (Table 1 and Table 2).

7. The Role and Importance of Self-Directed Learning in the Process of Entrepreneurial Learning for Students in Higher Education

This section discusses how SDL can make EL an active process where the student is intrinsically motivated and takes responsibility for the learning process to apply skills and knowledge in practical situations. While the field of EL in HEIs is relatively new and developing, studies reveal that students need to be self-directed and self-motivated in the EL process (Morris & König, 2020; Nishantha & Fernando, 2020; Pech et al., 2021). However, while some students in a formal HEI classroom setting may be ready to engage in SDL strategies to develop their EL skills, competencies, and behaviors, others will not (Nishantha & Fernando, 2020). As a result, lecturers will initially play an important role in promoting SDL and preparing students for SDL environments (Brandt, 2020). In this case, the objective of the lecturer in mediating the EL process is to cultivate confidence and competence among students to adopt ownership of learning and to create needs awareness in them. The role of the lecturer thus moves to a facilitator of learning who provides a learning environment that encourages SDL and develops EL. The learning environment should not only allow students to assume responsibility for learning but also to collaborate with others (Nishantha & Fernando, 2020; Tekkol & Demirel, 2018). The implication is that the lecturer ought to sensitize students toward SDL, introducing them to the idea, principles, benefits, and contribution of SDL to learning in the 21st century (Morris, 2024) and thereafter scaffold and guide students toward taking increasing responsibility for their EL.

There are various roles that SDL plays in EL in equipping students with skills and competencies to prepare them for life and self- or other employment. Firstly, SDL enhances the EL of students through supporting the experience-based approach to learning. For the students to develop the necessary skills, knowledge and competencies (attitudes) to become entrepreneurs, SDL helps shift the learning process from a focus on lecturing in the classrooms to experiences that are linked to the entrepreneurial process and the students’ own reflective understanding of these experience (Haneberg et al., 2022). As a result, SDL enables students to use experience- and action-based approaches to interact, collaborate with others, solve real-world problems, and face difficulties related to business ventures (Arpiainen et al., 2013). The inference is that experiences are helpful in the development of an entrepreneurial attitude or mindset, in which success and failures are seen as opportunities for the learning process.

Secondly, SDL plays an important role in enhancing EL by developing creativity and innovation and for thriving in the 21st century (Morris & König, 2020; Schoeniger et al., 2021; Timmermans, 2023). Studies have revealed that EL programs that incorporate SDL methods have yielded positive results in developing students’ business skills, competencies, motivation, creativity, and innovation in entrepreneurship, especially when integrated within a social context (Asri & Lioni, 2020). This argument implies that SDL, combined with an experiential learning approach, can certainly enhance entrepreneurial creativity and innovation in the context of EL.

Fostering SDL in EL can promote intrinsic motivation and raise the entrepreneurial spirit (or mindset) and intentions of students (Morris & König, 2020). In this sense, SDL helps in shaping students’ intentions and prepares them for effective entry into the entrepreneurial domain to become potential entrepreneurs or value-creators (Morris & König, 2020; Timmermans, 2023). Thus, integrating SDL into EL can significantly equip students with the relevant skills for success in becoming entrepreneurs or at least entrepreneurial thinkers in a changing and complex world. In a global economy where graduates increasingly have to create their own opportunities for income or employment, this will be critical.

8. Conclusions

Self-directed learning plays an important role in enhancing the EL process for students in HEIs. To develop entrepreneurial skills and competencies in students, the findings reveal that teaching-learning strategies should be interactive, effective, promote social learning, and be meaningful to the students. In this regard, the use of SDEL in lecture halls and after graduation enables students to carry individual responsibility and collaboratively control cognitive and contextual processes in developing meaningful learning outcomes. Not only does SDL support EL in an experience-based approach to learning by solving real-world problems, but it also enhances EL by developing students’ entrepreneurial skills, competencies, and mindset, which are essential for the development of creativity and problem-solving skills in the workplace in the future.

Based on the findings, the author concludes that SDL plays an important role in enhancing EL in HEIs. SDL can improve the effectiveness of EL and help develop students into entrepreneurial thinkers. Active teaching-learning strategies that incorporate practical activities focused on entrepreneurial learning will develop entrepreneurial competencies and foster SDEL. The practical implications are that the use of SDL in EL can develop a spirit of creativity, create value on several levels, and empower students to become job creators instead of job seekers as HEIs prepare them for challenges in life and (self-) employment after graduation.