Exploring the Impact of 3D Anatomy Applications on Academic Competencies in Medicine and Health Sciences

Abstract

Anatomical study, rooted in tradition spanning centuries, has historically been based on the methodology of dissections and the use of book illustrations. Currently, various teaching methodologies have emerged for the training of health sciences students, among which 3D applications of anatomical models stand out. This study aims to investigate which 3D anatomy apps are most used by health science students and their perception of the usefulness of these apps for studying anatomy—specifically, to what extent they believe these apps contribute to the acquisition of academic, cognitive, and interaction competencies related to the anatomy course. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in which 88 students from the fields of Medicine and other Health Sciences at several Spanish universities completed a survey that included questions about the use of 3D anatomy apps and the competencies outlined in the official anatomy course syllabus at Spanish universities. The results show that 3D anatomy apps are commonly used (74.2% of participants) and positively affect the students’ anatomical study, as most participants (84.95%) found these apps useful both in their learning process and for increasing their academic motivation. These apps seem to contribute much or very much to the acquisition of competencies related to the understanding of anatomical structure and morphology (81.82% and 78.79%, respectively), although their contribution to the study of anatomical function is less significant (21.21%). Remarkable results were also obtained in relation to the perceived contribution of other cognitive and interaction skills linked to the study of anatomy. For the first time, this study collected data on the use of 3D apps by Health Science students from Spanish universities. Furthermore, this study provides insight into which specific competencies are most benefited by the use of 3D anatomy apps, suggesting future improvements to these apps to enhance the acquisition of certain competencies, which will ultimately improve the teaching–learning process of anatomy through these applications.

1. Introduction

Since the dawn of humanity, human beings have been interested in understanding their own bodies, whether out of mere curiosity, to learn what they are like and how they function, or to address body-related health issues. The first known questions about health and illness, approached in a more systematic way, can be found in post-Neolithic cultures and the great early civilizations. Evidence of medical professionals exists in the Hindu world and in Ancient Egypt, where medical interventions such as cataract surgeries were already being performed (Leffler et al., 2020). However, it is in Greek culture, with Hippocrates, that we first encounter medical practices aimed at moving beyond myths, seeking scientific explanations for how the human body functions and what causes its pathologies. It is believed that the first human dissections for the purpose of anatomical study were conducted in Greek Alexandria in the 2nd century BC by Herophilus and Erasistratus (Potter, 1976). Following these early beginnings, the entire subsequent medieval tradition of human anatomy was for centuries based on the teachings of Claudius Galen, who conducted studies primarily on animals, such as monkeys and pigs (Reyes-Fuentes & Chavarría-Olarte, 1990). His work shaped the understanding of human anatomy for over a thousand years. In fact, by the 14th century, dissections were routinely performed on human cadavers according to his teachings. In the 16th century, a new anatomical tradition based on the teachings of Vesalius emerged (O’Malley, 1964).

Furthermore, the emerging use of the printing press during the Renaissance expanded anatomical knowledge through explanatory texts with drawings and diagrams, such as Vesalius’ famous De Humani Corporis Fabrica, which medical students began to use. Today, illustrated books remain a primary resource for many health sciences students, although their quality has greatly improved thanks to advances in cadaver study, histology, radiological imaging techniques, and even printing.

The development of audiovisual technology and computer science at the end of the 20th century transformed the way we process and manage information (e.g., audio, video, holograms, virtual environments). These technological innovations are also being utilized in teaching anatomy in higher education, as they offer the opportunity to provide accessible and standardized anatomy education to medical students who use smartphone applications as part of their learning process (Zargaran et al., 2020). In fact, digital technologies are greatly changing how anatomy is taught (Adnan et al., 2024) and integrating newer teaching methods and modern technologies is expected to foster interest and improve the retention of anatomical knowledge (Turney, 2007), as they seem to add an additional layer of depth to anatomy education beyond conventional cadaver dissection (Alasmari, 2021). Furthermore, the use of new methodologies was accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced many universities to replace traditional face-to-face anatomy classes with dissections by employing alternative, non-in-person strategies (Iwanaga et al., 2021a), such as replacing human body dissections with 3D anatomical models available online. Currently, there is a comprehensive proposal for university-level anatomy teaching using a 3D approach, offered by the Elsevier publishing group, called Complete Anatomy (Elsevier, 2024). In this context, a recent review of anatomy studies across six health disciplines found 156 studies, 35% of which used 3D digital printing tools, 24.2% used augmented reality, 22.3% used virtual reality, 11.5% used web-based programs, and 4.5% used tablets (Adnan & Xiao, 2023). A consensus has also emerged that iPad anatomy apps should be used frequently to enhance students’ understanding of the course material (Chakraborty & Cooperstein, 2018).

Among the new sources of information on anatomy that are being used by students and teachers, in the present study we have focused on three-dimensional apps to visualize anatomic structures (3D anatomy apps), because they are universal technologies available to any student who has a mobile phone, a tablet, or a computer, which have many free functionalities and do not require any special device to be used. Currently, educational applications like these abound, including several that aim to specifically study human anatomy, which function as 3D anatomical atlases, showing organs and body systems with exceptional visual quality. They allow for advanced interactions such as rotations, the removal of organ layers, and detailed observation of different body functions, among other utilities. Some of the 3D apps that stand out are (a) Anatomy Learning; (b) Complete Anatomy 2023 (3D4Medical from Elsevier); and (c) Anatomy Atlas (Visible Body). However, it should be noted that these 3D anatomy apps have paid content, and only access to limited free content is allowed, which means that some users can only use these apps in their limited version, but they cannot access the entire content upon payment.

Recent research on the study of human anatomy using three-dimensional applications for mobile devices has found a positive impact on academic performance, with students who use these apps achieving higher grades (de La Barrera-Cantoni et al., 2021). Additionally, students have positively evaluated not only the educational usefulness of these apps for studying various anatomical aspects, such as ophthalmic anatomy (Ramesh et al., 2022) or bone anatomy (Iwanaga et al., 2021b), but also the breadth of anatomical knowledge acquired (Meyer et al., 2016). However, current scientific knowledge regarding the use of 3D apps in anatomy education remains limited. Existing studies in this field have typically had narrow objectives, focused on specific aspects of the didactic effectiveness of these applications, and have been conducted in only a small number of countries, with Spain not being included. Moreover, the aforementioned studies lack a detailed exploration of how the use of 3D applications contributes to the acquisition and development of specific academic competencies that must be achieved in the study of anatomy, as most have concentrated solely on evaluating academic success or the knowledge acquired. This situation highlights a lack of knowledge regarding the didactic effectiveness of 3D apps in the context of anatomical study, as well as their impact on the comprehensive training of students within the scope of the educational competencies established by the Spanish university system, which stipulates that educational efforts must be oriented towards the achievement of these competencies. Consequently, further research is needed to address this issue and move towards a more thorough understanding of the potential contribution of 3D apps in promoting effective and enriching educational processes in the field of anatomy.

Considering the aforementioned shortcomings, the aims of this study were the following: (a) to analyze which 3D anatomy apps are most used by Health Sciences students and how often they use them; (b) to examine students’ perception of the usefulness of 3D anatomy apps for the study of anatomy; and (c) to assess to what extent students perceive that 3D anatomy apps contribute to the achievement of academic competencies in anatomy (morphology, structure, and function of organs and body systems), as well as cognitive and interaction competencies, such as spatial rotation and autonomy.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample

The intentional sample that participated in this study consisted of 88 subjects, aged between 18 and 53 years (Mean age: 21.58 years; SD: 4.93). Of these, 63.63% were women, 35.23% were men, and only one subject 1.14% identified as another gender. Most of the participants were enrolled in the Anatomy course in the Medicine degree (69.32%), although students from Nursing (15.91%), Physiotherapy (9.09%), Psychology (3.40%), Dentistry (1.14%), and Occupational Therapy (1.14%) also participated (see

Table 1. Sociodemographic distribution of the sample.

Gender	n (%)	Mean Age	SD Age	Degree the Participants Are Studying
				Medicine	Nursing	Other
Women	56 (63.63%)	21.27	5.06	35 (62.5%)	11 (19.64%)	10 (17.86%)
Men	31 (35.23%)	22.77	7.61	25 (80.64%)	3 (9.68%)	3 (9.68%)
Other	1 (1.14%)	20	0	1 (100%)	0 (0%)	0 (0%)
Total	88	21.84	6.06	61 (69.32%)	14 (15.91%)	13 (14.77%)

). Of the subjects, 73% were students at public universities, 24.7% were students at private universities, and 2.3% had studied health-related degrees at both types of universities.

The sample size was determined based on statistical parameters to ensure reliable data while maintaining practical feasibility within the context of an exploratory educational study. Given that the population of first-year anatomy students in Spain is approximately 5000, this sample provides a 95% confidence level with a 10% margin of error, which is considered acceptable for studies of this nature. Furthermore, the sample distribution by gender, age, and academic program is consistent with previous studies conducted at Spanish universities (Amorós et al., 2020; Inurreta-Díaz et al., 2021; Oro et al., 2019), further supporting its representativeness. Given the focus on first-year anatomy students across various health-related degrees, this sample provides valuable insights into the broader population and reflects the diversity of student experiences in anatomy education.

The inclusion criteria for participation in this study were, on the one hand, being 18 years of age or older and, on the other hand, providing informed consent to voluntarily take part in the study. Participation was anonymous, as no identifying information that would require special processing of personal data was collected. The procedures followed adhered to the ethical standards of the relevant Ethics Committee and the Helsinki Declaration on human research (Asociación Médica Mundial, 2023).

2.2. Procedure

Once permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology at Madrid Open University (Udima), students enrolled in the Anatomy course as part of a health-related degree at several Spanish universities were invited to participate in the study through student groups that had already been created on WhatsApp, independently of this research. Only those participants who signed the informed consent form were able to take part in the study. They completed an ad hoc online form, described below, which they accessed via a link previously provided.

2.3. Instruments

An online survey specifically developed for this study was used to collect relevant data tailored to the context of anatomy education within health-related degree programs at Spanish universities (see Appendix A). The survey was designed to align with the educational and cultural needs of this setting, ensuring that the questions were relevant, comprehensible, and directly related to the academic competencies outlined in the anatomy course syllabi. The questions were carefully crafted by the authors, who are health sciences professors with extensive training and experience in anatomy education, ensuring both academic rigor and practical relevance. Additionally, a pilot study was conducted with ten anatomy students to validate and refine the survey content. This process helped identify ambiguities, improve the clarity of the questions, and ensure that the survey accurately captured the students’ perceptions and experiences with 3D anatomy apps. Feedback obtained from the pilot study was crucial in enhancing the reliability and validity of the instrument, minimizing potential response bias and improving the overall quality of the data collection process. The iterative refinement of the survey also ensured that the final version was both accessible and engaging for participants while preserving its scientific accuracy and comprehensiveness.

The survey included questions about (a) the use of 3D anatomy apps (which ones were used and how often); (b) the perception of health science students regarding the usefulness of these apps (to what extent they help them better understand the content of the Anatomy course and increase their interest and motivation to study anatomy); and (c) the perceptions of health science students regarding the contribution of 3D apps to their achievement of fundamental competencies in the study of anatomy. Specifically, two types of competencies were assessed: on the one hand, the academic competencies stipulated in the official Anatomy course syllabi in Spanish universities and, on the other, competencies related to cognitive and interaction skills involved in the study of anatomy. Among the first group, after analyzing the competencies associated with the curricula of various health degrees in different Spanish universities, and assuming the basic and commonly accepted definition of competency as “a set of social and affective behaviors, as well as cognitive, psychological, sensory, and motor skills that allow one to adequately carry out a role, performance, activity, or task” (Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-UAM, 2024), the fundamental academic competencies in the Anatomy course were considered to be the following: (a) knowledge of the morphology of body organs and systems; (b) knowledge of the structure of body organs and systems; and (c) knowledge of the function of body organs and systems, as previously stated by other authors, such as Millán (2008). Among the second group of competencies—those related to cognitive and interaction skills—the following were evaluated: (a) three-dimensional understanding (ability to comprehend and visualize anatomical structures in three dimensions); (b) accurate identification (ability to identify and name anatomical structures accurately); (c) spatial relations (understanding the spatial relationships between different structures within the human body); (d) clinical application (ability to address anatomical issues and understand their implications in health and disease); (e) interactivity (interactive learning skills that allow students to actively explore structures and functions); (f) collaboration (exchange of information and discussion of anatomical concepts among students); and (g) autonomy (ability to learn independently by providing interactive and accessible resources). In all cases, participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they considered that the use of 3D anatomy apps contributed to the acquisition of these skills on a five-point Likert scale (not at all, a little, somewhat, much, or very much). Additionally, the online survey included an informed consent form, as well as sociodemographic questions about the participants’ sex and gender and the health science degree they were studying. The questions included in the survey were designed by the authors, who are health sciences professors with training in anatomy. Additionally, a pilot study was conducted with ten anatomy students to validate and refine the content of the questions.

2.4. Design

To achieve the aims of this study, a descriptive cross-sectional design was used, following the classification of Hernández et al. (2010).

3. Results

3.1. Most Used 3D Anatomy Apps and the Extent of Their Use

Of the participating sample, only 6.82% of the subjects indicated that they were not familiar with any 3D anatomy app, and 18.18% confirmed that they knew some but had never used them. Therefore, 75% of the participants did know and had used these apps. The information related to the use of 3D anatomy apps obtained from these 66 subjects is described in the following paragraphs below.

In the survey, participants were able to indicate as many 3D apps as they used in the study of anatomy. Based on these data, the percentage of use for the most frequently chosen apps was as follows: Anatomy Learning-Anatomía 3D (57.6%); Atlas de Anatomía Humana 2024 (31.82%); Anatomía Atlas 3D (30.3%); and Complete Anatomy ’24 (12.12%). The majority of the sample (62.1%) used only free apps or the free utilities of those apps under payment. Regarding the frequency of 3D anatomy app use for studying anatomy in preparation for exams or evaluation tests, participants indicated that they used them “very often” (33.33%), “often” (28.79%), or “always” (13.64%). Only 24.24% of the sample reported using them “rarely,” and no participants indicated that they did not use these apps for exam preparation.

3.2. Perceived Usefulness of 3D Apps for the Study of Anatomy

The results show that most participants considered 3D anatomy apps to be useful. A high percentage indicated that these apps had “always” (33.33%), “very often” (37.88%), or “often” (13.64%) helped them better understand the content of the Anatomy course, while only 15.15% felt that these apps had “rarely” been helpful. Furthermore, none of the participants considered that these apps had never helped them in understanding human anatomy. Additionally, 80.3% of the participants believed that using 3D anatomy apps had increased their interest and motivation to study the subject, and 92.42% considered that, compared to studying with traditional materials such as books or class notes, the use of 3D anatomy apps had facilitated their learning process. In contrast, no participants indicated that these apps had made studying more difficult, and only 7.58% felt that 3D apps offered no particular advantage over traditional materials.

3.3. Perceived Contribution of 3D Anatomy Apps in the Acquisition of Fundamental Competencies in the Study of Anatomy

Participants believed that they had achieved academic competencies related to the morphology, structure, and function of organs and body systems through 3D apps, although not all to the same extent (see Figure 1). Specifically, most participants believed that 3D anatomy apps contributed “much” or “very much” to the acquisition of morphology and structure-related competencies (78.79% and 81.82%, respectively). However, 62.12% of participants felt that these apps contributed “somewhat” or “a little” to the competency related to the function of organs or body systems, and only 21.21% believed that 3D anatomy apps had contributed “much” or “very much” to achieving that competency. Moreover, 16.67% of the sample thought that these apps did not contribute to the study of organ and body system function “at all”.

In relation to the perceived contribution of 3D anatomy apps to achieving the seven cognitive and interactive anatomy competencies evaluated in the present study, those that seemed to benefit most clearly from the use of these apps were the ability to understand and visualize anatomical structures in three dimensions (three-dimensional understanding), the ability to identify and name anatomical structures accurately (accurate identification), and the ability to understand the spatial relationships between different structures within the human body (spatial relations) (see Figure 2). Specifically, most participants considered that 3D apps had contributed “much” or “very much” to the acquisition of 3D understanding (95.5%), accurate identification (84.8%), and spatial relations (86.4%) of organs and systems in the human body. The positive perceived impact of these 3D apps on the achievement of interactive learning skills (interactivity) and the ability to learn independently (autonomy) was also significant, as approximately three out of four participants believed that 3D anatomy apps had contributed “much” or “very much” to the acquisition of interactive learning skills (77.3%) and independent learning (75.8%). Finally, the contribution of 3D apps to acquiring the ability to address anatomical issues and understand their implications in health and disease (clinical application), as well as to exchange information and discuss anatomical concepts (collaboration), appeared lower. Only 40.9% of participants believed that these apps had contributed “much” or “very much” to the former, and 57.6% believed that these apps had contributed “much” or “very much” to the latter.

4. Discussion

In response to the first objective of the present study, it was found that a considerable proportion of Medicine and related Health Sciences students were familiar with the existence of 3D anatomy apps, and most of them had used these apps at some point on their technological devices. These findings align with previous research that has confirmed the growing adoption of new educational technologies in the anatomy learning process (Iwanaga et al., 2021b). The present study also confirmed that university students utilized various 3D apps designed for the study of human anatomy, with Anatomy Learning-Anatomía 3D being the most preferred by participants, followed by Atlas de Anatomía Humana 2024 and Anatomía Atlas 3D. This presents a challenge in terms of accessibility to this teaching tool, since, although both applications offer free features, payment is required to access full content, and not all students are willing or able to afford these apps. This economic limitation could impact equal access to digital educational resources among students.

In relation to the advantages of using 3D apps in the study of anatomy, as analyzed in the second objective of this study, the results clearly confirmed that their use provides significant benefits. A high percentage of the sample reported that these apps not only facilitated a deeper understanding of anatomy content but also increased their interest and motivation towards the subject. It was also observed that the use of 3D apps simplified the study process compared to traditional materials. Additionally, most participants felt that these apps helped them prepare for assessment tests or exams in anatomy. These results align with those of Chakraborty and Cooperstein (2018), who found substantial improvements in anatomy learning and better academic outcomes through the use of similar applications, as well as with those of Castro et al. (2023), where students considered the virtual reality methodology highly useful for studying anatomy. This reinforces the belief that 3D apps positively impact the learning process of anatomy and have the potential to enhance both understanding and motivation in this area of study.

As for the third objective, the results revealed a clear contribution of 3D apps to the achievement of competencies related to the understanding of the structure and morphology of organs and body systems, while the contribution of 3D apps to understanding their function was less conclusively evident. This finding can be explained by the nature of the anatomy subject, where functional understanding of organs or systems requires information that cannot be directly obtained through morphological and locational observation, which are the aspects most effectively addressed by 3D models. It is suggested that these apps incorporate additional elements, such as videos or interactive features. Including these resources could significantly enhance the apps, expanding their usefulness to comprehensively address all three competencies required in the study of anatomy. The results also revealed a significant association between the use of 3D anatomy apps and the acquisition of cognitive and interaction skills related to the study of anatomy. Specifically, the nature of three-dimensional applications appears to be particularly conducive to the development of cognitive skills associated with the management of visual information, with the 3D format being beneficial for understanding, identifying, and relating anatomical structures. Free and individual access to didactic resources is also seen as a factor that promotes both autonomy in studying and the establishment of interaction dynamics. However, a less obvious contribution was observed regarding skills related to collaboration or application, as 3D anatomy apps are not inherently designed to foster these social dynamics but rather as tools for individual use. In this regard, it is suggested that utilities be incorporated to encourage student interaction, thereby enhancing the acquisition of skills related to collaboration and social interaction in the context of learning anatomy. This approach aims to improve these apps, providing greater versatility and adaptability to address both individual and social–educational needs.

As a final observation, it is important to emphasize that the aforementioned contribution of 3D apps to the acquisition of essential skills in the study of anatomy aligns with previous studies. For instance, Wilson et al. (2018) highlighted that innovative methodologies—such as the use of 3D models, projections, digital media, and hybrid approaches—enable students to achieve academic outcomes comparable to those obtained through traditional methods, such as dissection. A randomized controlled trial also demonstrated that anatomy apps positively influenced chiropractic students’ learning outcomes, underscoring their potential to enhance spatial understanding and retention of anatomical knowledge (Meyer et al., 2016). Furthermore, the findings of this study regarding the acceptance and effectiveness of 3D applications in anatomy education are consistent with research on a 3D atlas for ophthalmology education, which demonstrated how interactive applications improve learning in specialized anatomical fields by enhancing visualization and comprehension of complex structures (Ramesh et al., 2022). Additionally, a review of anatomy education during and after the COVID-19 pandemic emphasized the need for integrating traditional and modern methods to optimize anatomy teaching, particularly in response to limitations on in-person learning (Iwanaga et al., 2021a). These studies collectively reinforce the notion that 3D applications complement traditional teaching methods, facilitating interactive and engaging learning experiences. The widespread accessibility of these tools through smartphones and tablets further enhances their potential to improve anatomy education. In conclusion, the evidence supports the integration of 3D applications to enrich students’ comprehension, motivation, and autonomy in learning.

5. Conclusions

The present study contributes to the understanding of the use of 3D apps in the study of anatomy among university students, in the context of the increasing use of educational technologies in the health sciences field. Specifically, the results reveal a high level of acceptance and use of these apps, reinforcing the general trend of incorporating new educational technologies into the anatomical learning process.

The substantial benefits of 3D anatomy apps have been confirmed in this study, as they not only assist students in preparing for exams and evaluation tests but also enhance their understanding, motivation, interest, and independent learning in the study of anatomy. This, in turn, can improve the overall teaching and learning experience. Moreover, this study emphasizes the practical implications of incorporating 3D anatomy apps into anatomy education, as their use can significantly contribute to more effective and engaging courses. By bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical applications, these apps play a key role in healthcare education. Additionally, the widespread use of smartphones and other devices offers opportunities to reach a larger audience (Zargaran et al., 2020). The findings further highlight how 3D anatomy apps support the acquisition of essential competencies, such as three-dimensional understanding and accurate identification of anatomical structures. These competencies are directly relevant to clinical practice, as they enhance students’ ability to visualize and interpret anatomical relationships, ultimately improving diagnostic and procedural skills in real-world healthcare settings. Specifically, the use of 3D anatomy apps appears to contribute to the understanding and identification of anatomical morphology and structure, while competencies related to anatomical functioning remain more challenging to achieve. The apps also positively influence cognitive skills, such as understanding and identifying organs and body systems. However, their contribution to social interaction skills—such as collaboration and student interaction—appears less significant. To address this, it is recommended to incorporate features that encourage interaction among students, thus enriching social learning experiences. Furthermore, autonomy in study is highlighted as an additional benefit of 3D anatomy apps. Lastly, it is suggested that public institutions either provide free access to essential app functionalities or design their own apps to overcome economic barriers and promote equitable access to digital educational resources.

To sum up, the findings of this study support the notion that the integration of 3D anatomy apps into anatomy education enhances traditional teaching methods by providing interactive and visually engaging tools. This approach improves students’ comprehension, retention, and application of anatomical knowledge, ultimately enriching their educational experience.

This study has several limitations that warrant careful consideration. Firstly, due to the intentional nature and relatively small size of the sample, the findings cannot be generalized to the broader population of health sciences students in Spain. Although the sample was selected to ensure a 95% confidence level with a 10% margin of error, it may not fully capture the diversity of experiences and learning environments across all Spanish universities. Nevertheless, as an exploratory study, it provides a valuable foundation for future research, offering preliminary insights into the use of 3D anatomy apps in this context. Secondly, the lack of a detailed analysis of app usage patterns may limit the generalizability of the results. Different learning preferences, levels of prior anatomical knowledge, or device availability could significantly affect how students engage with 3D apps and develop competencies. Future research should explore these usage patterns to better understand their impact on learning outcomes. Thirdly, this study relied on self-reported data, which might have introduced response bias and affect the accuracy of the findings. Participants’ perceptions and experiences are inherently subjective and may not always reflect their actual academic performance or skill development. To address this, future studies should incorporate objective performance measures, such as test scores, practical assessments, or clinical skill evaluations, to validate these self-reported outcomes. Finally, this study did not assess the long-term retention of anatomical knowledge acquired through 3D apps. While students reported positive short-term perceptions, it remains unclear whether these tools offer lasting educational benefits compared to traditional learning methods. Longitudinal studies would be valuable in determining the extent to which 3D anatomy apps contribute to long-term knowledge retention and their impact on clinical practice.

Based on the results of this study and the limitations previously mentioned, three specific recommendations for future research are proposed. First, conducting longitudinal studies to evaluate the long-term impact of 3D anatomy apps on knowledge retention and clinical performance would provide deeper insights into their effectiveness. Second, future research should focus on detailed analyses of usage patterns, exploring how different learning styles, levels of anatomical knowledge, and access to technology may affect app engagement and the development of competencies. Third, incorporating objective performance measures, such as academic test scores, practical skill assessments, and clinical evaluations, would offer a more comprehensive understanding of the educational outcomes associated with 3D anatomy apps.