Inclusive Higher Education Challenges: Promoting Knowledge and Practice of Gender Equality

Abstract

Spanish teachers, in general, are committed, sensitised and in favour of integrating gender equality into their professional development. Despite this, the gender perspective has not been systematically integrated into the training of future teachers. One of the reasons for this is education professionals’ lack of knowledge about the most elementary constructs of gender mainstreaming. The present study explores primary school teachers’ perceptions and knowledge. To this end, it considers some critical elements of gender equality (gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism). A qualitative and quantitative approach was adopted, and the methodological design was based on Grounded Theory. An intervention programme was designed to make students aware of and able to distinguish between these terms. Ninety-two prospective primary school teachers took part in the study. Of these, 69% were female, and 61% were between 17 and 18. To assess students’ perceptions of gender equality, students completed an initial and final questionnaire before and after the educational innovation. The findings show that future primary school teachers had superficial and limited knowledge about gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism. In this regard, the design and implementation of transversal and innovative educational actions can help overcome these deficiencies.

1. Introduction

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the UN in 2015, is an opportunity for countries to embark on a new path to improve the lives of all, leaving no one behind (Bala, 2018; United Nations, 2015a). SDG 5 is a key part of the 2030 Agenda because of its wide-ranging aims. It aims to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls, eliminate all forms of discrimination and violence against women in public and private spheres, and undertake reforms to ensure that all women have the same rights to economic resources and opportunities as men (UN Women, 2015a). In Spain, there is no direct relationship between the commitment made by universities at the formal level and the initial training of teachers in gender equality (Resa, 2023). This is despite the existence of the Organic Law on Comprehensive Protection Measures against Gender Violence (2004) and the Law on Measures for the Effective Equality of Women and Men (2007), which, almost 15 years ago, called for the incorporation of gender equality in the educational curriculum. Despite the existence of specific educational policies, a sexist model still prevails in formal education in terms of the curricula, the methodologies, the teaching resources and materials, the relations between members of the educational community, and even in the distribution of school spaces (Acar-Erdol & Gözütok, 2017). In this context, education can be an effective strategy to reproduce and legitimise power relations or, on the contrary, to eliminate inequalities (MacKenzie et al., 2022; Yesil & Balci, 2021). Teachers are key players because they are responsible for the education of future generations. Therefore, ensuring their training is focused on equality, democracy, and respect for human rights is a priority (Kilavuz & Karaboğa, 2021; Resa, 2021).

Within this framework of considerations, the objective of this study is to explore the perceptions and knowledge of prospective primary school teachers regarding key gender equality constructs—gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism—and to assess the impact of an educational intervention designed to improve their understanding. These objectives answer the following research question: How do prospective primary school teachers perceive and understand gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism, and to what extent does an educational intervention improve their knowledge of these concepts? The study provides empirical evidence on the impact of gender-focused training in teacher education through a mixed-methods approach based on Grounded Theory.

This research contributes to the field in three key ways:

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Empirical Contribution: It provides quantitative and qualitative data on the knowledge gaps regarding gender equality among future teachers.

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Practical Contribution: It assesses the effectiveness of an educational intervention, offering a model for integrating gender perspectives into teacher training curricula.

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Theoretical Contribution: It advances gender studies in education by identifying how teacher training programmes can be restructured to foster critical reflection and transformative learning about gender equality.

The scientific community has recently shown that Spanish teachers at all educational stages are committed, sensitised and in favour of integrating gender equality in their professional development (Larruzea et al., 2021; Mosteiro & Porto, 2017). However, it has also shown that the gender perspective has not “just landed” in university classrooms. It is possible that one of the reasons for this is the lack of knowledge of education professionals regarding the most elementary constructs of this approach. For example, Etura et al. (2019) confirmed that more than 50% of the university students who participated in their study misdefined terms related to equality and were unaware of gender equality policies. Along the same lines, Carrino et al. (2022) also found that 14% of students did not know the meaning of feminism. Despite the relevance of understanding constructs related to gender equality, as this provides a basis for critical reflection and action (Watts et al., 2011), little research has explored this training in depth. In particular, the research community has only explored to a limited extent how prospective teachers perceive key gender concepts such as gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism, as well as how these constructs can be effectively integrated through educational interventions in the initial education of teachers. The present study aims to fill this gap in the existing literature.

Against this background, the present study aimed to explore the perceptions and knowledge of prospective primary school teachers regarding various constructs of gender equality. Their training pertaining to these issues needs to be identified, and for that reason, an intervention programme was designed to favour the development of competencies related to equality and equity. The study results cover these teachers’ perceptions and knowledge of gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism.

1.1. Knowledge of Gender Equality for Critical Reflection and Action

Thomas and Newell (2023) argue that the development of a critical consciousness and feminist identity positively influences women’s participation in actions to reduce gender inequality. Furthermore, they add that young men and women who have reflected on, and are critically aware of, inequality act more decisively against inequalities.

Critical consciousness is a tool for change (Freire, 1970); therefore, when applied to gender equality, it is key to reducing sexism. Critical consciousness is composed of critical reflection, critical efficacy, and critical action (Watts et al., 2011). The first is a cognitive process involving awareness and analysis of unjust social conditions, the second is an interest and belief in the capacity for social change, and the third encompasses behaviours undertaken individually or collectively to challenge and change facets of society that are perceived as unjust (Diemer et al., 2021). Critical efficacy, in turn, is divided into internal and external efficacy (Watts et al., 2011). Internal efficacy refers to an individual’s confidence in their own knowledge of gender issues (Thomas & Newell, 2023), and external efficacy refers to the commitment of the government and institutions to addressing gender inequalities and inequities.

In relation to internal effectiveness, which is the element of interest in this study, women were found to be more likely to engage in critical action when they have taken courses in women’s or gender studies (Stake & Hoffmann, 2001). Thomas and Newell’s (2023) research findings reveal that it is important for women to feel confident in their knowledge of gender equality issues. It is necessary that educational interventions aimed at promoting equality also incorporate the development of gender equality knowledge, as this will help to create the attitudes required for change. Hence, it is necessary for future teachers to understand and internalise the meaning and implications of the most important terms linked to gender equality. Four of these constructs are gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism.

As an analytical category, gender has faced several theoretical and political confusions that have obscured its true contributions. One of these is that the terms “gender” and “feminism” have been confusingly (Mikkola, 2017) treated as synonyms, probably because the concept of gender gained momentum in the second wave of the feminist movement. Such confusions can be observed within the women’s movement itself, as gender is sometimes used as a synonym for feminism and sometimes as a term that encapsulates women’s experiences and interests only (Lagarde, 1992). However, the substitution of the word “sex” for “gender” has reflected a conceptual weakening of both terms.

Gender is a category in which three basic instances are articulated (Subbi, 2022): (1) the assignment of gender that is made at the moment a baby is born, based on the external appearance of its genitals; (2) gender identity, which is established from the age of two or three, when the infant acquires language; and (3) gender roles, which are the set of norms and prescriptions that society and culture dictate about feminine or masculine behaviour. Although sexual differences are the basis on which a certain distribution of social roles is based, this assignment does not follow “naturally” from biology, but is a social fact (Lamas, 2018). In this way, the social patterns of what it means to be a man, or a woman become embedded in people’s minds as they learn that there are differentiated values linked to male and female roles. These influence the way they see the world, their preferences, and their decisions. Girls are more flexible in their conception of gender stereotypes and show an interest in the activities of both sexes from the age of six. In boys, on the other hand, “girls” roles or games are forbidden.

Gender equality implies that all people should have the same rights, resources, and opportunities, regardless of their gender identity, whether in employment, health, or education (UN Women, 2022). Gender equality is not only an essential human right but also one of the pillars for building a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world (United Nations, 2015b). Indeed, the 2030 Agenda highlights that one of the central axes of sustainable development is the achievement of gender equality and women’s empowerment (SDG 5) (UN Women, 2020). This requires the elimination of social, economic, and political inequalities arising from gender discrimination. These are deeply rooted in unequal access to decent work, as well as differences in pay, education, health care, resources, and decision-making power (Brixiová et al., 2020; Connor et al., 2020; European Commission, 2019; Leal-Filho et al., 2022; Maheshwari & Nayak, 2020).

The glass ceiling construct has been examined for several decades and has been the subject of a significant amount of research. However, the term first began to attract significant attention in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1991, the Catalyst organisation published a study investigating the challenges women face when trying to advance their careers in American companies. The “glass ceiling” is a phenomenon of the under-representation of women in top positions, a subtle barrier, which is transparent but so strong that it prevents women and minorities from moving up the hierarchy (Morrison et al., 1987). The “glass ceiling” is a persistent multidimensional phenomenon and is based on discriminatory practises and attitudes, both conscious and unconscious, that prevent qualified women from reaching leadership and management positions (Singh et al., 2023). To advance in their professional lives, women also face obstacles in the form of informal networks from which they are excluded. In short, the gender structures imposed by organisations, peers, family, and society, and even those imposed by women themselves, are some of the obstacles that researchers have tried to analyse (Adams-Harmon & Greer-Williams, 2020).

For its part, feminism has played a key role in achieving equal rights between men and women. Indeed, it is one of the great social movements of the 21st century. However, feminism is appreciated by some and reviled by others, who attribute to it a reactive and polarised nature. Feminism is critical of institutions and spaces where there is no real equality of power. It proposes that power is shared on equal terms and not in a “man’s world” that only certain women can enter (Ballarín, 2015). Despite this, the predominant school culture currently continues to socialise students by transmitting traditional gender stereotypes and values based on a patriarchal educational model (Maphanga et al., 2018). One of the consequences of this situation is that women are in a minority in science (European Commission, 2019; Society of Spanish Researchers in the United Kingdom, 2019; Women, Science and Innovation Observatory, 2020). In this regard, García and Pérez (2017) and Solís-Espallargas (2018) point to sexist stereotypes and the shortage of female scientists as crucial factors discouraging girls from going into science.

1.2. Teacher Training in Gender Equality: A Feminist Pedagogical Approach

The scientific community has shown evidence of power in gender relations that can be perceived as early as Primary Education in various forms; for example, in the segmentation and use of school playgrounds (Bobby & Yoyok, 2023; Mayeza & Bhana, 2020), in play preferences (Spears, 2021), in stereotypical relationships and attitudes (Solbes-Canales et al., 2020), and in gender-disparate academic achievement. Therefore, Hooks (2017) argues that it is essential to educate from childhood with a feminist perspective, as this is when identities and social roles are constructed. The problems mentioned above, recurrent in childhood education, challenge the institutions where future teachers are trained to work towards a transformative approach based on feminist pedagogy. Agud-Morell and Breull-Arancibia (2023).

In line with Agud-Morell et al. (2020) and Agud-Morell and Breull-Arancibia (2023), we understand feminist pedagogy as an educational praxis that challenges and transforms systems of oppression and inequality and encourages critical thinking about how educational, social, political, and economic structures shape people’s lives. Indeed, this pedagogy highlights education’s transformative and liberatory potential (Hooks, 1994) and emphasises the importance of creating safe, egalitarian, and inclusive learning spaces that invite active participation in dialogue and collaborative learning. Feminist pedagogy recognises a connection between power and knowledge in the learning environment (Valle-Ruiz et al., 2015). Therefore, teacher educators must take into account and rethink, within the framework of social justice, the educational dimensions of what (epistemologies and competencies), how (methodologies), where (spaces), and who we are going to educate (subjectivities and agencies) (Agud-Morell et al., 2020).

A previous study of feminist pedagogies highlighted that the success of the feminist agenda in the university context is mediated by several factors, including policies, their design and implementation, and power dynamics (Verge, 2021). The influence of people working in universities, including faculty, has also been demonstrated. In this respect, Lombardo and Bustelo (2021) state that their gendered knowledge, prejudices, beliefs, and stereotypes may create resistance that undermines the successful implementation of gender policies. Whatever the reason, there is a consensus that gender equality has not been widely introduced in teaching (Montes de Oca, 2019) and that one of the causes is insufficient teacher training. Therefore, it is challenging, and at the same time necessary, to think about training future teachers from a feminist pedagogy, which has implications both for the transformation of the content, i.e., what is taught, as well as taking into account where how, and to whom the information is being taught, and what style is used in teaching–learning. This objective implies that more is needed to carry out awareness-raising activities in the Faculties of Education of universities and to introduce isolated training. However, cross-cutting and holistic training in gender equality is necessary (Merma-Molina et al., 2023).

The holistic training of future teachers, based on feminist pedagogy, must begin, firstly, with the development of cognitive and emotional elements (Naskali & Keskitalo-Foley, 2019). Secondly, it is crucial to move students away from passivity. This purpose can be achieved by making the classroom a place where everyone can reflect, speak, and express themselves freely, and where learners can explore their knowledge and experiences (Oppenhaim-Shachar, 2021). Thirdly, there is a need to promote awareness and understanding of how traditional pedagogy perpetuates and reproduces hegemonic gender structures (McGregor, 2003). This awareness will foster the development of critical thinking that goes beyond the immediate learning context and views considered ’appropriate learning’ (Duckworth et al., 2016). Fourth, the teacher educator must interact with prospective teachers dynamically and deeply so that they can make personal interpretations of what they learn (McCusker, 2017) and understand that knowledge is not acquired in a uniform or linear way. In short, the aim is to design a dynamic and transformative curriculum that promotes experiential learning, academic dialogue, self-reflective knowledge (Henderson, 2015), and professional activism. Under these assumptions, this study aimed to explore the gender equality-related knowledge of prospective primary school teachers to understand some central constructs. In this way, it contributes to strengthening trainee teachers’ professional identity.

2. Materials and Methods

To achieve the objectives of the study, the mixed approach (qualitative and quantitative, with emphasis on the former) was used. For the qualitative method (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Flick, 2018), the design was based on Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2006; Glaser, 2004; Strauss & Corbin, 2002) to determine the perceptions and knowledge of future Spanish Primary Education teachers regarding gender equality and its most essential constructs and, on this basis, to design an intervention programme. In this sense, the study considered the double dimension expressed in Grounded Theory research. On the one hand, the research was developed under a logic of the collection, analysis, and categorisation of information and, on the other hand, the design involved moving beyond a simple exploration, looking for a particular result or product (Glaser, 2004).

The tasks of analysing and categorising the open data were based on induction. This procedure allowed us to understand the meanings attributed by the students to the four themes or categories of our study, always considering their context. For each of the constructs, initially, a research question was posed:

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Gender: What is the prospective teachers’ view and knowledge of gender, and what are the implications of this construct in their personal lives and professional training?

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Gender equality: What meanings do prospective teachers attach to gender equality?

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Glass ceiling: How do trainee teachers understand the glass ceiling?

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Feminism: What do prospective teachers think about feminism, and what meanings do they attach to this construct?

On the other hand, to test whether there were changes before and after the educational intervention in the perceptions and knowledge of prospective primary school teachers about gender equality, Chi-square tests and Cramer’s V coefficient were used.

2.1. Context and Participants

The educational innovation was carried out within the framework of the subject theory and history of education taught in the first year of the bachelor’s degree in Primary Education at the Alicante University. The experience occurred from September to December of the 2020–2021 academic year.

The sample was selected using the non-probabilistic and intentional sampling technique. The conditions for selecting the participants were that the students were studying for a Degree in Primary Education and not other educational stages, that they were enrolled in the subject of Theory and History of Education, and that they were taught in Spanish. Thirteen hundred and fifteen (1315) students met these requirements.

In order to verify the representativeness of the sample, the saturation method for purposive samples was taken into account (Guest et al., 2006; Saunders et al., 2018). Furthermore, Grounded Theory (Morse, 1994) suggests that the representative sample should range from 30 to 50 interviews. Taking into account this fact, the sample consisted of 92 students. Of these, 69% were women; 61% were aged between 17 and 18, 21% between 19 and 20, and 18% were over 21.

2.2. Instruments

In order to collect the information, semi-structured interviews (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) were used. An ad hoc instrument was designed considering the research objectives. The interview questions were framed in nine dimensions (Appendix A):

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Relevant concepts related to gender equality.

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University students’ knowledge of fundamental laws on gender equality.

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University students’ perception of the role of education in the promotion of gender equality.

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Students’ views on the roles women and men currently play in education, the family and society.

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Male and female historical references for future teachers.

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Students’ thoughts and knowledge about gender-based violence.

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Students’ knowledge of gender identity and its relation to personal development.

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Students’ previous training in gender equality and their degree of satisfaction.

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Assessment of the integration of gender equality in the subject Theory and History of Education.

The first dimension, the focus of this study, concerned students’ perceptions of the most important constructs of gender equality.

Specifically, for the first dimension, the following questions were asked:

• What is your opinion and what is the meaning of “gender equality” for you?
• What are your perceptions of gender and what implications does “gender” have for you?
• What is your opinion and what is the meaning of “glass ceiling” for you?
• What perceptions do you have of “feminism” and what meaning(s) would you attribute to it?

The instrument was validated by expert judgement. Two specialists in educational research—two in gender and two in teacher training—participated in this process. A content analysis was carried out and attention was paid to how the questions were worded to overcome the social desirability bias that can prevent people from providing honest answers. Subsequently, a pilot test was conducted with 25 trainee primary school teachers (67% female). In relation to the first dimension, the results highlighted the following constructs: gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism. The final version of the questionnaire was created in digital format using Google Forms. At the beginning of the data collection process, students were informed of the research objectives and provided with the link to the form. The completion time ranged from 30 to 40 min. The content analysis of the collected information was performed using the qualitative software AQUAD 7. For the statistical analysis, SPSS v. 24 software was used. The changes in scores before and after the educational innovation were statistically tested using the Chi-square test. Values of p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Also, to determine the degree of association between variables, Cramer’s V coefficient was used, which varies between O and 1, where values close to 0 indicate a weak association between variables, values between 0.1 and 0.3 indicate a moderate association, and values greater than 0.3 have a solid or complete association between variables (Rea & Parker, 2014).

Regarding research ethics, the study complied with the fundamental principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Subjects gave their consent to participate, and the anonymity and confidentiality of the information provided were always guaranteed.

3. Procedure and Design of Educational Innovation

The aim of the educational innovation was to promote, among future teachers of primary education, a greater and better knowledge of the most important constructs linked to gender equality. This programme is part of a broader programme where gender equality was integrated considering nine dimensions. The experience was carried out within the framework of the curricular planning of the subject theory and history of education. The duration of the intervention to promote the experience was three specific sessions and 12 cross-cutting sessions, distributed over four months. In order to define the subject areas where the teaching–learning of gender, gender equality, sexism, and the glass ceiling would be integrated, the research team, together with the teachers who teach the subject (five teachers), discussed, in a 60 min face-to-face session, which of the six modules of the subject were the most suitable for this purpose. Thus, it was determined that the integration of these constructs should be carried out in the following modules: Block 1 (the school and types of education), Block 4 (culture, values, person and education) and Block 5 (the learner, human educability, and the purpose of education). In the first block, the elements involved in educational action and the variables that influence it were discussed. This was the appropriate moment to address gender and its meaning. Likewise, the principles of education were analysed, including gender equality, both in international policies and in Spanish legislation. In Block 4, the typology of violence that affects children’s coexistence and learning was examined. Due to its nature, this topic was ideal for incorporating the study and analysis of sexism and the glass ceiling. In addition, the importance of feminism and feminist pedagogy as instruments to create safe and inclusive learning spaces in primary education was discussed. In Block 5 of the subject, we reflected on sex, gender, gender identity and sexual identity, and their relationship with the subjectivity of the learner. All this learning was reinforced and fed back in the different learning sessions of the subject.

The participants gave their informed consent to participate in the study. To assess students’ perceptions of gender equality, students completed an Initial Questionnaire (IQ) and a Final Questionnaire (FQ) before and after the educational innovation. These were completed in 45 min during the first and last week of the term.

Table 1. SDG 5 integration learning plan.

Units	Contents	Practises
Unit 1. The school. Types of education. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child, UNESCO Report. Gender and gender equality. Educational legislation in Spain.	- Analyse the reality and problems of education today. Identify and reflect on the dimensions, principles and aims of education. - Investigate and analyse the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the UNESCO Report, the educational legislation in Spain, especially the Spanish Constitution and the Organic Law on Education (LOE), with an emphasis on co-education and effective equality between men and women (Preamble, Article 1 (Principles), 17 (Primary Education and gender equality), 102 (teacher training for gender equality) and 151 (functions of the educational inspectorate and gender equality). Define and analyse the implications of gender and gender equality.	Learning activity 1: School Essay - Choose one of the following topics: fundamental rights and duties of the Spanish Constitution regarding the concepts of equality, education, freedom, or family; convention on the Rights of the Child; Spanish Constitution, and LOE. - Analysis of legislation, identifying and reflecting on the contents related to education, gender, and gender equality.
Unit 4. Culture, values, people, and education: identities and violence prevention.	They know about, analyse, and reflect on culture and education. 4.1. Socialisation as a learning process Enculturation, acculturation Educational personalisation. 4.2. Violence and re-encounters Conflict versus violence School violence: bullying Types of violence. School coexistence: non-coexistence factors: addictions, cyber-violence, gender inequality and inequity, glass ceiling, sexism, and gender violence.	Individual practice: Viewing of videos and short films related to the different types of factors that affect pupils, coexistence in the classroom, and learning: conflict, violence, disruption, indiscipline, addictions, sexism, gender violence, sexting, grooming, absenteeism, and school failure. They identify the problems related to gender equality that most affect Spanish education and propose strategies for the prevention of the factors analysed.
Unit 5. The learner, human educability, and the purpose of education: subjectivity and identity of the learner, meaning and notion of education.	They investigate and analyse the current reality and propose specific educational projects and actions in relation to: 5.1. Identities Structure of subjectivity Personality versus identity Individual identity: self-esteem and self-concept. Collective identities. Sex and sexual identity, gender, and gender identity.	8. Training activity: preparation of a poster and large group debate on: self-esteem and self-concept and sexual identity. Presentation of conclusions.

shows the coherence matrix between the contents and the learning plan.

4. Results

4.1. Qualitative Analysis

Four themes emerged from the coding process of the participants’ voices concerning the perceptions and knowledge of prospective primary school teachers about the fundamental constructs of gender equality and equity: (1) gender, (2) gender equality, (3) the glass ceiling, and (4) feminism. All these units of meaning encompass a set of codes and subcodes that allow for a better understanding of the study. These are explained in the tables:

• FA is the absolute frequency of each code or subcode and refers to the number of times participants mentioned a particular meaningful unit.
• %FA is the percentage absolute frequency of each code or subcode and is obtained by calculating Fax100/total.

The presentation of the results is also explained with narratives that illustrate and clarify the meaning of each of the codes and subcodes.

Theme 1.

Perceptions of gender.

The first theme is organised into three codes that refer to students’ views on gender before and after the intervention: roles, identity, and no perception (

Table 2. Comparison of the initial and final questionnaire for the category of gender.

	Initial Questionnaire				Final Questionnaire
Codes	FA		%FA		FA		%FA
	W	M	W	M	W	M	W	M
1.1.1 Roles
1.1.1.1 Social role	6	2	7.9	7.7	42	13	59.2	46.4
1.1.1.2 Being male or female	8	4	10.5	15.4	3	3	4.2	10.7
1.1.1.3 Male and female	6	1	7.9	3.8	2	3	2.8	10.7
1.1.1.4 Masculine	0	2	0.0	7.7	0	0	0.0	0.0
1.1.1.5 Differentiation	11	1	14.5	3.8	2	0	2.8	0.0
1.1.2 Identity
1.1.2.1 Biological sex	22	8	28.9	30.8	12	4	16.9	14.3
1.1.2.2 Personal identity	2	2	2.6	7.7	1	0	1.4	0.0
1.1.2.3 Sexual identity	4	1	5.3	3.8	1	1	1.4	3.6
1.1.2.4 Gender identity	9	2	11.8	7.7	5	3	7.0	10.7
1.1.2.5 Gender diversity *	0	0	0.0	0.0	2	1	2.8	3.6
1.1.2.6 Sexual orientation	2	0	2.6	0.0	0	0	0.0	0.0
1.1.3 No perception	6	3	7.9	11.5	1	0	1.4	0.0
Total	76	26	100.0	100.0	71	28	100.0	100.0

* Code that appears only in the final questionnaire.

).

Roles are closely associated with gender equality because they traditionally mark the boundaries between what is appropriate for the masculine and feminine. This situation remains an essential starting point for understanding why inequalities persist. In IQ, gender, linked to the differentiation of people, is emphasised by women, while men, albeit to a lesser extent, relate gender especially to being male or female. In this sense, women state that “gender refers to the characteristics of the human being that have the purpose of differentiating us” (Prestu-W-22) and “gender is a way of classifying and differentiating people” (Prestu-W-54), while a male participant indicates that “gender identifies people as men or women” (Prestu-M-83). On the other hand, in IQ, only one man relates gender to both masculine and feminine, while in no case do women associate gender only with the concept of “masculine”.

The future teachers also linked gender to identity, which is essential for people to develop as human beings. The students’ testimonies were related to different areas of the person, which were integrated into six subcodes: biological sex, personal identity, sexual identity, gender identity, gender diversity, and sexual orientation.

In IQ, students relate to gender, especially to biological sex identity. This point of view is particularly recurrent in the case of women and, to a lesser extent, in the case of men. In this regard, they point out that “gender identity is the uniquely physical or biological characteristics that differentiate people” (Prestu-W-15), and “it is the genetic identity of a person” (Prestu-M-59). Secondly, women, when referring to gender, raise the definition of gender identity, also referring, in a confusing way, to biological sex: “[G]ender refers to identity; that is, the gender identity that differentiates people from each other; that is, it refers to the sex that distinguishes people”. In addition, there is an occurrence of cases relating to sexual identity, especially in women, who emphasise how they are perceived by others based on their sex (and not how they see themselves): “[G]ender is the sexual identity of the person, it is how others see her because of her sex” (Prestu-W-28). Finally, a small number of them link it to sexual orientation, but only in the case of women: “[Y]ou can say that gender is sexual orientation, that is, who you like” (Prestu-W-37).

At the end of the intervention, students’ perceptions had changed, and their knowledge of gender and associated constructs such as sex, sexual identity, and gender identity had increased significantly. In this sense, it is noteworthy that both females and males could relate gender to the concept of social role. The students generally understood gender as a sociocultural, historical construction of the meanings attributed to men and women. The following discourse summarises these findings: “Gender is the sociocultural constructs that shape and differentiate the roles, perceptions and statuses of men and women in a given society. This point has been the case before and continues to be the case today” (Postu-W-44).

In analysing the FQ narratives, we also perceive a critique of the social system that is especially evident today among the younger population. Thus, women argue that “gender refers to the social construction that marks and forces the behaviour of men and women in society, and this is bad for everyone” (Postu-W-34). This position is shared by men, who point out that “it is the role imposed by society with which each individual should feel identified” (Postu-M-06). As can be seen, the evolution of students’ knowledge about gender and its relation to identity has been significant if we compare the text segments at the beginning and end of the intervention. The findings show a reduction in the association of the meaning of gender being exclusively linked to biological sex.

In sum, initially, it was observed that the participating students proposed a variety of terms related to both gender roles and identity; however, at the end of the intervention, a better understanding of gender is perceived, with students understanding it as a construct linked to identity and which may or may not coincide with sex. Thus, as one student points out: “[G]ender would be like a part of an individual’s identity that may or may not coincide with his or her sex” (Postu-W-31), and its persistence over time according to the historical patterns pre-assigned to men and women is also highlighted.

Finally, it is worth noting that a small group of students, especially women, claim not to understand gender or have any knowledge about it. Thus, a female student says: “The truth is that I have no idea” (Prestu-W-07), and a male student says: “I do not know... I do not know what to say about gender” (Prestu-M-28). Even some men and women state that they have never heard of it: “I have not heard of gender” (Prestu-M-12). In this sense, the educational innovation carried out in the subject had positive results, as only one female student indicated that she did not know the meaning of gender. Likely, this student did not take the continuous assessment of the subject but only the final assessment, which does not require class attendance, which did not allow her to participate in the educational experience.

Theme 2.

Gender equality.

Understanding the real meaning of gender equality is the first rung in climbing “the ladder of equality”. Therefore, teachers need to understand the term’s accurate dimension to use strategies to adequately educate for equality.

Equality is mainly linked to the sub-code “equality between men and women”. These findings are relevant in both IQ and FQ (

Table 3. Comparison of the initial and final questionnaire on the category of the gender equality concept.

	Initial Questionnaire				Final Questionnaire
Codes	FA		%FA		FA		%FA
	W	M	W	M	W	M	W	M
1.2.1 Equality
1.2.1.1 In rights	8	3	12.7	12.0	0	0	0.0	0.0
1.2.1.2 Between two sexes	7	3	11.1	12.0	1	0	1.4	0.0
1.2.1.3 Between two genders	4	2	6.3	8.0	3	1	4.3	4.2
1.2.1.4 Between women-men	41	16	65.1	64.0	63	22	91.3	91.7
1.2.1.5 Salary	3	1	4.8	4.0	2	1	2.9	4.2
Total	63	25	100.0	100.0	69	24	100.0	100.0

). In the IQ, one woman states: “[G]ender equality refers to equality between men and women” (Prestu-W-03). Likewise, the female voices point out that this construct refers to equality of rights, followed by equality between the two sexes: “[I]t refers to the equality of rights of people” (Prestu-W-17), “I think it is equality between the two sexes, that is, men and women” (Prestu-W-65). There are even those who point out that gender equality refers to equal pay: “[G]ender equality is equal pay, without discrimination, for both men and women” (Prestu-W-69). In the FQ, a significant change is perceived, since most groups understand that gender equality refers to equality between men and women. In this respect, one student states: “It is the existence of equal opportunities between men and women that enables them to lead a dignified life regardless of the sex to which they belong (Postu-M-34)”. Their answers are more precise and show greater clarity about the concept, as they are encouraged to emphasise that gender equality should be independent of people’s sex. To a lesser extent, in the FQ, the idea appears that gender equality refers to equal pay, especially in the case of men, and equality between the two genders: “Gender equality refers to equality between the two genders, men and women, who should have the same wage opportunities” (Postu-M-69). It is striking that participants referred to equality between the two sexes, genders, or between men and women, demonstrating the prevalence of a reductionist conception around two cisgender realities: male, masculine, and heterosexual, and female, feminine, and heterosexual.

However, a deeper analysis of the narratives reveals specific nuances in the FQ that are particularly interesting. Thus, the students’ statements highlight discrimination, a problem in schools that is not always made visible: “Gender equality should require that all genders have the same rights and freedoms and that they do not suffer any kind of discrimination, as is often the case in school classrooms” (Postu-W-72). Also significant are some narratives that refer to intersectionality: “Gender equality is the state in which no differences are found between sexes and races” (Posa-H-lu35); equality is also understood as a symbol of freedom: “That all genders have the same rights and freedoms and that no one suffers discrimination” (Postu-W-75).

Theme 3.

Glass ceiling.

One of the main manifestations of inequality is in the field of work, specifically in career aspirations and positions of responsibility, where women are concerned that they find it more challenging to compete with men due to the structure of the labour market and the beliefs of collective thinking that favour inequalities in this area.

Today, the debate around working life and equal pay continues to be of great interest, as is also reflected in the narratives of the participants in our study.

Table 4. Comparison of the initial and final questionnaire for the glass ceiling category.

	Initial Questionnaire				Final Questionnaire
Code	FA		%FA		FA		%FA
	W	M	W	M	W	M	W	M
1.3.1 Professional barrier	24	8	37.5	34.8	41	17	61.2	60.7
1.3.2 Differential salary	3	1	4.7	4.3	6	3	9.0	10.7
1.3.3 One sex discrimination *	0	0	0.0	0.0	3	3	4.5	10.7
1.3.4 Term unawareness	37	14	57.8	60.9	17	5	25.4	17.9
Total	64	23	100.0	100.0	67	28	100.0	100.0

* Code appearing only in the FQ.

presents the results of the emerging codes: professional barrier, pay gap, discrimination towards one sex, and lack of knowledge of the term.

It is worth noting the significant number, especially of women, who are unfamiliar with the “glass ceiling” construct. Thus, they say: “I do not know what the glass ceiling is; I prefer not to say any definition because I have not heard anything about it” (Prestu-W-89). On the other hand, the idea that the glass ceiling refers to the professional barrier is the second most frequent code in the IQ, highlighted especially by women. In this way, the participants present testimonies associated with women’s difficulties and limitations in the workplace. However, their perceptions are pretty general: “I am not sure, but I think it is a kind of barrier that has been placed on women” (Prestu-W-30), and there are even those who state that there are no professional barriers: “I have heard the term, but I think that both men and women encounter the same barriers, so it is false that there are differences” (Prestu-M-16). In the FQ, both women and men explain more precisely what the construct of the glass ceiling refers to: “It is the set of invisible obstacles that prevent women from moving up to higher levels, regardless of their qualifications and achievements” (Postu-W-65); “it is a metaphor that interprets the invisible barriers that women encounter when trying to make their way in their working careers” (Postu-M-85).

In general, the participating students first expressed general ideas that were different from the meaning of the glass ceiling. Thus, a female student commented: “There are more men with better salaries in all types of jobs than women; that is the glass ceiling” (Prestu-W-70). In the FQ, some still define the glass ceiling as a wage gap: “It is the inequality that we find in the workplace, such as the difference in salaries, working conditions, etc.” (Postu-W-18). However, there are others who, in a more precise way, explain the implications of the glass ceiling: “[I]t is an imaginary ceiling that indicates that women cannot rise or earn more than men in the labour and economic sphere” (Postu-M-23); “the glass ceiling means that women are paid less and do not reach positions of responsibility and diligence in companies” (Postu-W-58).

Likewise, in the FQ, there is a greater awareness of discrimination against women in the workplace. A female student says: “Women are prevented from rising to high management or business positions, and this is harmful and unfair for women and society” (Postu-W-36). However, a male voice states that the glass ceiling can affect both men and women indistinctly: “[I]t is the differences and discrimination of women or men in the labour and professional sphere” (Postu-M-55). Finally, it is relevant to underline the high percentage of findings that show the students’ lack of knowledge of the meaning and implications of the “glass ceiling”: “I do not know the meaning of the term” (Prestu-W-31), “I have no idea” (Prestu-M-47), “I had never heard this phrase” (Prestu-W-58). Even though the lack of knowledge of the construct decreased after the intervention, and in the educational intervention, the term and its implications were explained, analysed, and discussed. Still, some indicated that they did not know the term.

Theme 4.

Feminism.

Feminism is one of the great social movements in history for equal rights; for this reason, the 20th century is known as the century of women. This movement provides milestones and references without which it is impossible to understand the current progress of gender equality and the challenges that still lie on the horizon, so future teachers must be aware of its meaning and transcendence in the socio-educational sphere. The two codes associated with this category are feminism as a movement for demands and feminism as a movement for equality (

Table 5. Comparison of the initial and final questionnaire for the feminism category.

	Initial Questionnaire				Final Questionnaire
Codes	FA		%FA		FA		%FA
	W	M	W	M	W	M	W	M
1.4.1 Vindication movement
1.4.1.1 Equality movement	23	8	34.3	27.6	16	8	22.2	34.8
1.4.1.2 Liberation movement	1	1	1.5	3.4	3	0	4.2	0.0
1.4.1.3 Fight against GBV*	1	2	1.5	6.9	2	1	2.8	4.3
1.4.1.4 Empowerment movement	2	1	3.0	3.4	0	0	0.0	0.0
1.4.2 Equality movement
1.4.2.1 Gender *	0	0	0.0	0.0	8	0	11.1	0.0
1.4.2.2 Rights-based	36	15	53.7	51.7	43	14	59.7	60.9
1.4.2.3 Between people	4	2	6.0	6.9	0	0	0.0	0.0
Total	67	29	100.0	100.0	72	23	100.0	100.0

GBV* (gender-based violence). * Code appearing only in FQ.

). The first of these is vindicative and located in the DNA of the women’s liberation movement. It is characterised by its relentless struggle to equalise the rights, freedoms, and duties of women and men. In the second subcode, the equality of rights between women and men appears in particular as an inalienable principle currently enshrined in the constitutions of all the countries of the world, making it a fundamental right.

The subcode of the feminist demand and movement for equality is the most prevalent subcode in both the IC and the FQ. This thought stands out, especially for women, who understand feminism better than men. One participant explains it in this way: “It is a movement driven by women in order to eliminate problems such as sexism and thus achieve greater equality between men and women” (Prestu-W-62); “It is a feminine current that seeks equality between men and women” (Prestu-W-58). However, some narratives, albeit few, defend feminism as a movement that privileges women: “It is a tendency or current that grants privileges to women, and I believe that this is not necessary” (Prestu-W-67). Two voices, from a woman and a man, indicate that it is a movement for women’s liberation: “I think that women have had a bad time; they have been very oppressed, and feminism is a form of women’s liberation” (Prestu-M-12). At the end of the experience, the perceptions were practically the same in the case of women and men; therefore, the position that feminism is a movement for women’s demands for equality continues to be prevalent. However, there is a more critical stance that encompasses the different areas of society in which women’s rights are undermined. The following narrative synthesises this point of view: “feminism is a movement of demands for equality. It is a political, cultural, economic and social action aimed at liberating women and claiming their rights, challenging male domination and violence against women, and allocating social roles” (Postu-M-64). In the FQ, there is also the idea that it is a movement that fights against gender-based violence. This position, albeit to a lesser extent, is especially emphasised by men.

It should be noted that there was no narrative in the FQ that feminism privileges women. In sum, in the FQ, there is a different evolution in the number of testimonies according to gender. However, the feminist movement is mainly seen as a movement driven and led by women in favour of equality.

Participants’ voices also identified feminism as a movement for equal rights in both the IQ and the FQ. Women especially emphasise these perceptions, both before and after the intervention. However, in the IC, the ideas are more general. An example of this is the following narrative: “It is the defence of women’s equality in the world” (Prestu-W-03); “it is the struggle for equality between women and men” (Prestu-M-16). In the FQ, there is a more precise and better-argued perception of feminism as a movement that fights for equal rights. Thus, a female student points out: “It is a social and political movement that defends equality between women and men in all areas such as education and work”. (Postu-W-14). Likewise, in the FQ, the idea emerges that women understand feminism as a movement that fights for gender equality: “It is a movement that fights for gender equality. It can also be said that it is a social movement to achieve effective equality between men and women so that women can have the same rights as men” (Postu-W-44).

4.2. Statistical Analysis: Significance Tests and Effect Sizes

Significance and effect size tests were applied to assess outcome changes after the intervention. The former is used to determine whether an observed difference between groups or variables is statistically significant or simply the result of chance, and the latter indicates the magnitude of the effect of the intervention.

Analysis 1.

Perceptions of gender.

The findings we obtained are novel and significant. They show that there are substantial differences between the time variable (before and after the educational innovation) and the variable “perception about gender”. This association was verified for men, women, as well as for the total sample, indicating a clear association between the perception of gender before and after the educational innovation. These findings contribute to the growing body of knowledge in the field of gender studies and education (

Table 6. Results of the Chi-square test: perceptions of gender.

Chi-Square Tests
Sex		Value	gl	Asymptotic Significance (Bilateral)
Men	Pearson’s Chi-square	19.696 b	10	0.032
	Likelihood ratio	24.167	10	0.007
	Linear by linear association	6.314	1	0.012
	N of valid cases	54
Women	Pearson’s chi-square	51.181 c	10	0.000
	Likelihood ratio	57.432	10	0.000
	Linear by linear association	23.314	1	0.000
	N of valid cases	147
Total	Pearson’s chi-square	65.730 a	11	0.000
	Likelihood ratio	74.759	11	0.000
	Linear by linear association	29.637	1	0.000
	N of valid cases	201

^a 11 boxes (45.8%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.99. ^b 18 boxes (81.8%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.48. ^c 12 boxes (54.5%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.97.

).

Biological sex”, followed by ‘differentiation’, predominates in the IQ for women. On the other hand, “Biological sex” and “Being a man or being a woman” had more weight in the IQ for men. It should be noted that “Social role” prevailed in the FQ, both among women and men. These findings are confirmed by Cramer’s V statistic, which shows that the strength of the association is high for males (0.604), and for females (0.590), as well as for the total sample (0.572) (

Table 7. Cramer’s V results: perceptions about gender.

Symmetrical Measurements
Sex			Value	Approximate Significance
Men	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.604	0.032
		Cramer’s V	0.604	0.032
	N of valid cases		54
Women	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.590	0.000
		Cramer’s V	0.590	0.000
	N of valid cases		147
Total	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.572	0.000
		Cramer’s V	0.572	0.000
	N of valid cases		201

).

Analysis 2.

Gender equality.

The highest frequency in the IQ, both in the case of men and women and in the total sample, refers to the item “equality between women and men. The percentages for this category in the FQ rose considerably in both groups (26.2% for women and 27.7% for men).

Based on the results obtained, there are significant differences between the moment variable (initial–after) and the gender equality variable for both the women’s group and the total sample. Segmenting by the sex variable verified this association in the case of women as for the total sample (

Table 8. Results of the Chi-square test: perceptions of gender equality.

Chi-Square Tests
Sex		Value	gl	Asymptotic Significance (Bilateral)
Men	Pearson’s Chi-square	7.263 b	4	0.123
	Likelihood ratio	9.588	4	0.048
	Linear by linear association	6.209	1	0.013
	N of valid cases	49
Women	Pearson’s Chi-square	17.260 c	4	0.002
	Likelihood ratio	20.913	4	0.000
	Linear by linear association	13.925	1	0.000
	N of valid cases	132
Total	Pearson’s Chi-square	24.308 a	4	0.000
	Likelihood ratio	29.762	4	0.000
	Linear by linear association	20.221	1	0.000
	N of valid cases	181

^a 3 casillas (30.0%) han esperado un recuento menor que 5. El recuento mínimo esperado es 3.40. ^b 8 casillas (80.0%) han esperado un recuento menor que 5. El recuento mínimo esperado es 0.98. ^c 8 casillas (80.0%) han esperado un recuento menor que 5. El recuento mínimo esperado es 2.39.

).

In the IQ, for the group of women, the categories “equality between women and men”, “equal rights” and equality between the two sexes” were more relevant. In the case of men, only the first one prevailed. When the total sample was analysed (without distinguishing between sexes), statistical relevance occurred in “equality of rights” and “equality between the two sexes”, with greater weight in the IQ, and “equality between men and women” in the FQ.

The effect size, in Cramer’s V statistic, confirms an association that is somewhat higher than the moderate one, both in the case of men (0.385), women (0.362), and the total sample (0.366) (

Table 9. Cramer’s V results: gender equality.

Symmetric Measures
Sex			Value	Approximate Significance
Men	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.385	0.123
		Cramer’s V	0.385	0.123
	N of valid cases		49
Women	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.362	0.002
		Cramer’s V	0.362	0.002
	N of valid cases		132
Total	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.366	0.000
		Cramer’s V	0.366	0.000
	N of valid cases		181

).

Analysis 3.

Glass ceiling.

The highest frequency in IQ, in men and women, shows a lack of knowledge of the term (see Table 4). These findings are also reflected when analysing the total sample. However, the results change in the CF. In this case, the prevalent frequency in women and men is the “Professional barrier”. After the development of educational innovation, the frequency of “Ignorance of the term” decreases significantly in the total sample.

The findings show significant differences between the variable moment (initial–after) and the variable “glass ceiling” for the women’s and men’s groups and the total sample. Segmenting by the sex variable, this association is verified in women, men, and the total sample. Therefore, an association between the “glass ceiling” according to the moment (before and after the educational innovation) is evident (

Table 10. Results of the Chi-square test: glass ceiling.

Chi-Square Tests
Sex		Value	gl	Asymptotic Significance (Bilateral)
Men	Pearson’s chi-square	14.227 b	3	0.003
	Likelihood ratio	16.059	3	0.001
	Linear by linear association	8.724	1	0.003
	N of valid cases	49
Women	Pearson’s chi-square	15.793 c	3	0.001
	Likelihood ratio	17.195	3	0.001
	Linear by linear association	11.235	1	0.001
	N of valid cases	131
Total	Pearson’s chi-square	28.801 a	3	0.000
	Likelihood ratio	31.712	3	0.000
	Linear by linear association	19.411	1	0.000
	N of valid cases	180

^a 2 boxes (25.0%) have an expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.90. ^b 4 boxes (50.0%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.41. ^c 4 boxes (50.0%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.47.

).

Furthermore, when analysed in total (without distinguishing sex), statistical significance occurs in the “professional barrier” in the IQ and FQ and in “discrimination towards one sex” in the FQ. The effect size in Cramer’s V statistic shows that the strength of the association is high for men (0.539), somewhat higher than moderate for women (0.347), and relatively high for the total sample (0.400) (

Table 11. Cramer’s V results: glass ceiling.

Symmetric Measures
Sex			Value	Approximate Significance
Men	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.539	0.003
		Cramer’s V	0.539	0.003
	N of valid cases		49
Women	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.347	0.001
		Cramer’s V	0.347	0.001
	N of valid cases		131
Total	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.400	0.000
		Cramer’s V	0.400	0.000
	N of valid cases		180

).

Analysis 4.

Feminism.

Initially, both men and women understood that feminism was a movement for equality based on women’s rights; this definition was followed in terms of frequency by “it is a women’s movement for equality” (in this last case, the value was more pronounced in women). After the educational innovation, although these conceptions are generally consolidated, the frequency of the second category (women’s movement for equality) decreased in the case of women (see Table 5).

Based on the results, there are significant differences between the variable “moment” (before and after the educational innovation) and the variable “feminism”, both for the group of women and for the total sample. Segmenting by the sex variable, this association is verified in the case of women and the total sample. Therefore, there is evidence of an association between feminism, according to time, and women (

Table 12. Chi-square test results: feminism.

Chi-Square Tests
Sex		Value	gl	Asymptotic Significance (Bilateral)
Men	Pearson’s chi-square	3.725 b	5	0.590
	Likelihood ratio	5.226	5	0.389
	Linear by linear association	0.049	1	0.825
	N of valid cases	52
Women	Pearson’s chi-square	17.052 c	6	0.009
	Likelihood ratio	22.499	6	0.001
	Linear by linear association	0.818	1	0.366
	N of valid cases	139
Total	Pearson’s chi-square	18.420 a	6	0.005
	Likelihood ratio	24.990	6	0.000
	Linear by linear association	0.454	1	0.500
	N of valid cases	191

^a 10 boxes (71.4%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.49. ^b 8 boxes (66.7%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.44. ^c 10 boxes (71.4%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.96.

).

Specifically, the category “Movement for gender equality” had a more pronounced or significant proportion in the FQ in the group of women. On the other hand, the category “Movement for equality among people” had no value in the FQ, both in the case of men and women. When the total is analysed (without distinguishing sex), statistical significance occurs in the category “Movement for gender equality”, which has a more pronounced or significant proportion in the FQ. On the other hand, the effect size, in Cramer’s V statistic, shows that the strength of the association is moderate for men (0.268) and somewhat higher than moderate for women (0.350), as well as for the total sample (0.311) (

Table 13. Cramer’s V results: feminism.

Symmetric Measures
Sex			Value	Approximate Significance
Men	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.268	0.590
		Cramer’s V	0.268	0.590
	N of valid cases		52
Women	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.350	0.009
		Cramer’s V	0.350	0.009
	N of valid cases		139
Total	Nominal by nominal	Phi	0.311	0.005
		Cramer’s V	0.311	0.005
	N of valid cases		191

).

5. Discussion

This study aimed to explore the perceptions and knowledge of prospective primary school teachers about some critical elements of gender equality (gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism). Their initial narratives showed that their perceptions were confused, and their knowledge of these constructs was low. Based on this, an educational innovation programme was implemented to improve knowledge of gender equality.

Concerning students’ perceptions of gender, our findings highlight two codes: roles and identity. Regarding the former, the dispersion of responses in the IQ shows that students equated being male or female with gender, while, for the women’s group, this term implied sexual differentiation. As far as identity is concerned, students univocally linked biological sex with gender, i.e., they used these terms interchangeably. These findings align with the recent study by Rodríguez-Olay (2023), who pointed out that primary school teachers are aware of their limited knowledge of gender issues. Also, it was reflected in our study that the perceptions and understanding of sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation are intermingled and confused. These results show that the participating students’ knowledge of these constructs is superficial. At the same time, these results are consistent with the study by Magallanes and Sadoski (2019), who argue that there is no clear understanding of identity and what gender means. Along the same lines, Ballarín et al. (2015) also refer to the confusion between these terms produced by the mass media, the Internet, and the lack of continuous and quality training. Reflection on the meaning of gender bore fruit in the FQ, where the narratives associated with the social role appeared predominantly. In the latter questionnaire, a more complete understanding and knowledge of this concept can be appreciated:

Gender is the constructed social role; it also refers to the social or cultural category and the behaviours, characteristics and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women. (Postu-W-79).

Gender roles are created by society and passed down from generation to generation and are, therefore, social constructs that can be changed through education. In contrast, biological sex is assigned at birth, and is almost always male or female. Understanding the meaning, dimension, and implications of gender is vital in training future teachers. As Pinedo et al. (2018) argue, schools and teachers play a crucial role in classroom socialisation, particularly in the personal and social construction of gender. At the end of the educational experience, the students’ confusion about gender and identity was partly alleviated due to this educational innovation.

Gender equality was the second basic construct addressed in this research. It is a term better understood by students on a theoretical level and has more profound implications and connections on personal, relational, educational, and cultural levels. The students who participated in the study agreed that gender equality refers to equality between men and women in the IQ, and especially in the FQ. This conception is consistent with the findings of Ballarín (2017) concerning the interpretation that students have of equality or co-education. In her study, it was argued that teachers’ lack of knowledge about the real meaning of equality between men and women hinders the ability of a culture of equality to be achieved in schools.

In the analysis of the text segments on the glass ceiling, there was a high percentage of non-responses in the IQ. Both men and women who participated in this research associated the glass ceiling with professional barriers, especially in the FQ; however, even so, there was still a considerable proportion of participants who were unaware of the term. Our findings coincide with the research of Sani and Quaranta (2017), who argue that this inequality persists in our environments, even in the young population. For Alves (2018), the exclusion of women from scientific careers is a historical remnant of discrimination, so sexism is perpetuated and is part of a culturally ingrained social mentality that assigns roles to men and women. Interestingly, women generally do not see themselves as sexist, so sexism, like the glass ceiling, is a concept and reality that are linked but ignored, as demonstrated by the results of our work.

Given these findings, men and women must have a university education in women’s and gender studies that includes acquiring knowledge and learning reflectively, as this is the stepping stone to critical action (Stake & Hoffmann, 2001). It is important to emphasise that women, in particular, need to be confident in their knowledge of gender equality issues. One of the ways to promote the acquisition of these competencies is for Spanish universities to design and implement specific innovation actions at an institutional level (Lozano et al., 2016; Verge et al., 2018). The analysis of students’ perceptions of feminism took the form of two codes: feminism as a movement for demands and feminism as a movement for equal rights between men and women. The first code is the one that was recognised the most in both questionnaires. Regarding the second code, the equal rights subcode obtained the highest number of testimonies in the IQ. These results are reinforced in the FQ.

The analysis of the participants’ testimonies shows a knowledge of the feminist movement through educational references that are very limited and, on many occasions, non-existent. This research shows how young university students have a diffuse image of feminism, which they know by hearsay. In the best of cases, they have knowledge linked to its beginnings as a suffragette movement and the incorporation of women’s access to education and work. The meagre results regarding knowledge of the prominent figures of feminism are in line with those of Curros (2021), who refers to Spanish educators such as María de Maeztu Whitney, who, despite her extraordinary legacy in the field of education, has been studied very little, or not at all, in faculties of education. On the other hand, no narratives have been found that link feminism with co-education or quality education (Rodríguez-Martínez, 2014; Tomé, 2017), perhaps because the feminist movement is mentioned in blatant cases of abuse but the educational feminism that can build bridges to deal with issues related to identity, equality, or sexual relations at school is excluded. To achieve this, teachers must be trained to recover their sensitive side and their ability to generate natural, sincere, and open relationships (Fanfani, 2004; Tomé, 2017). In short, our study clearly shows how some constructs, such as gender, the glass ceiling, and gender identity, are alien to the technological inhabitants of the 21st century.

Spanish schools have made weak and insufficient progress in gender equality education, as girls have been included in the male educational model. However, due to this inclusion, the cultural and educational model has yet to be transformed. This leads us to suspect that the superficial knowledge of feminism in the majority of students, which is evident in the IQ, is mainly because it is not studied at school as it is considered, in many cases, to be non-academic, subjective, ideologised content, or content that can cause problems for teachers (Ballarín, 2015). These deficiencies were overcome in the FQ, where a considerable evolution in the understanding of feminism can be seen, not least because, as some students stated, motivated by the subject matter, they researched the theories, movements, terms, and references addressed in the subject.

Finally, it is necessary to point out that the analysis and inclusion of the critical constructs linked to gender in our study were paramount to addressing the rest of the subject’s themes. Professor Aguayo et al. (2015), in their study on the incorporation of the gender perspective in the TFG of the Bachelor’s Degree in Economics at the University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain), previously suggested that knowledge and understanding of the basic terminology associated with equality were fundamental. The following testimony from a student is an excellent example of the importance of understanding and reflecting on the constructs:

The subject has allowed me to know a lot of terms and concepts that I did not know and to differentiate them. I have learnt about them, but not by rote. Sincerely, it has clarified many questions that I had and has awakened others that I did not have, which leads me to get more into the subject and go deeper into it.

(Postu-M-90)

Gender mainstreaming in university teaching is a vehicle for ensuring equality and facilitating sustainable development (UN Women, 2015b). If education is one of the cornerstones of the SDGs (UNESCO, 2016), universities, through their educational and learning activities, have a fundamental role in the challenge of achieving the SDG 5 targets. Higher education institutions are called upon to equip future teachers with the knowledge and skills to identify and overcome stereotypes that perpetuate inequalities in society (Etura et al., 2019) and to empower and mobilise young people to build an egalitarian culture (Boström et al., 2018). To do this, a first step is to recognise and understand the value of the main constructs of gender equality, as you cannot teach what you do not know. As Thomas and Newell (2023) point out, only students’ knowledge of gender constructs and content, i.e., internal critical efficacy, will enable both men and women to act decisively against inequality and inequities.

The study alerts us that future primary school teachers lack basic knowledge about gender equality. This fact suggests that gender equality intervention programmes in faculties of education, where future teachers are trained, should start with learning the critical constructs of gender equality and equity. In this line, the results of this study can help modify the structure and design of training programmes on gender equality and the prevention of gender-based violence. These need to incorporate both the development of procedural and attitudinal competencies and cognitive competencies. The latter skills refer to the ability to know, understand, and analyse knowledge related to gender equality, e.g., gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism. Teaching these constructs, especially at the initial stage of training, can help build a solid foundation for promoting gender equality.

Cognitive competencies focus on the understanding of gender issues as well as the ability to address them in order to make informed decisions critically. At a later stage than the mastery of constructs, this could include developing gender awareness (recognising the existence of gender inequalities and stereotypes), assessing the social, cultural, and economic factors that perpetuate gender inequality, historical knowledge (knowing how gender issues have evolved throughout history and how they have affected people of different genders), and understanding policies and laws related to gender equality and their impact on society. In short, it is not very useful to put in place protocols and actions to work towards living together in a more egalitarian environment if the people to whom they are addressed are unaware of them or perceive their validity to be limited or non-existent. It is, therefore, crucial that future teachers feel confident in their knowledge of gender issues.

Although the study and, in particular, the educational innovation showed promising results in training future teachers, a limitation of the research may be the sample size, due to its lack of representativeness. However, the mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) adopted in the study allowed us to understand the study’s phenomenon in an in-depth and detailed way in a specific context. Still, future studies should include more representative samples to capture the different perspectives and experiences of prospective teachers. Extending the study to other contexts and participants studying for degrees in Early Childhood Education, Primary Education, and Secondary Education would be necessary.

Likewise, the possible bias in selecting the participating students, as this is a study in a specific context, could lead to results that accurately reflect reality. In any case, measuring the real impact of gender equality training is complex, as natural changes in the attitudes and practises of future teachers may be difficult to identify. Therefore, if institutional policies do not reinforce cognitive training, this may not be sustainable in the long term.

6. Conclusions

The study reveals that prospective primary school teachers have limited and confused knowledge about fundamental concepts of gender equality, including gender, gender equality, the glass ceiling, and feminism. This deficiency aligns with previous studies that point to the influence of the media and lack of continuing education in the persistence of stereotypes and misunderstandings about gender identity and equality. To address this problem, an educational intervention was carried out that significantly improved their understanding. The results suggest that structured and cross-subject training on gender equality is essential for future teachers to develop the necessary competencies to foster inclusive and equitable classrooms.

Despite the progress observed, misconceptions about feminism and the glass ceiling persisted among some students, indicating that targeted interventions are insufficient. The study also underlines the importance of gender equality education in initial teacher training. It, therefore, highlights the need to design training programmes that not only address theoretical concepts but also develop cognitive, procedural, and attitudinal competencies that enable future teachers to recognise and combat gender stereotypes in their professional practice. In short, a more holistic and sustained approach is required to ensure a deeper internalisation of gender issues and their implications for education.

Higher education institutions play a crucial role in promoting gender awareness and should incorporate gender-related training as a fundamental aspect of teacher education. This study highlights the need for further research and larger sample sizes to assess the long-term impacts of gender equality training on teachers’ attitudes and practises. A more comprehensive curriculum can equip future educators with the tools to challenge gender stereotypes and create a more inclusive educational environment.