Multiperspectivity in the EU Project ECCOPS ‘Education for Citizenship Competence to Participation and Sustainability’

Abstract

I describe in this paper selected aspects of the Erasmusplus Project Education for Citizenship Competence to Participation and Sustainability, performed by three European countries, in order to empower students for civic engagement through citizenship education. The partners from Italy, Spain and Romania worked from 2021 to 2023 to develop strategies and materials to enhance the qualification of teachers in civic and citizenship education to support participation of young people across Europe. The project provides new solutions to the problems identified, in order to improve civic education, to avoid the risks of indoctrination and to offer effective teaching materials, available in open access. The main products are the Toolkit with flexible teaching/educational proposals for the students and the Guidelines for the teachers, the Matrix of competences for the teachers, and the Competence Cards for the students with indicators to (self)assess the improvements. The working materials were used in the ECCOPS Learning/Teaching/Training Activities for teachers and for students, monitored through videos observed by critical friends. I discuss in this paper especially the work carried out to foster multiperspectivity, starting from the Competence Card ‘Multiperspectivity’, with the aim of preventing radicalism and fanaticism, considering different points of view on controversial topics and developing knowledge, skills and values to enable students to have a greater understanding of what makes up an effective civic participation. The most relevant project results are expected to have an impact at both institutional and practical levels in civic and citizenship education.

1. Introduction

I describe in this paper selected aspects of the Erasmusplus project ECCOPS ‘Education for Citizenship Competence to Participation and Sustainability’ (2021–2023) [1] and discuss especially the work carried out to foster multiperspectivity and pluralism in civic education, in order to promote civic engagement and participation among students.

The main research question of this article is about the reasons, the aims and the strategies for multiperspective teaching on controversial topics at school, focusing on the use of careful teaching strategies and of appropriate learning tools.

At the beginning, I address multiperspective teaching and learning, considering the need of handling controversies at school, to prevent both homogenization and radicalism; then, I describe shortly the ECCOPS project and deal with the professional teacher competences required for this approach. After that, I report some results of the project work: the implementation strategies, the importance of the educational context and the Competence Cards, using the example of the Competence Card ‘Multiperspective thinking’.

Controversies are part of the democratic process, and school teaching cannot hide the controversial nature of debated issues. The educational process has to provide learners the necessary tools for independent thinking and developing knowledge, skills and values.

The potential benefits of teaching controversial subject matters in the classroom are wide-ranging; it is highly demanding for teachers in deciding the approaches and in dealing with the different points of view [2].

Young people are bombarded with information through their use of communication technologies and through social networks. Traditional and digital media increasingly present controversial issues in partial and misleading ways, characterized by the spread of misinformation and fake news, exposing people to sensitive issues, which require demystification and discussion [3].

Students are left alone or rely on their peers to learn how to select and interpret information and might have no reliable guide for dealing constructively with some of the major issues which affect society. These include emotional elements, among others [4].

Very often, societies become polarized around particular controversial topics. In these situations, the minority may be bullied by the majority; this can lead to students practising self-censorship, whether experiencing intimidation or fear of being branded or ostracized by their peers. That means a loss of helpful pluralistic ideas and the dominance of unquestioned consensus [5], often of the hegemonic thinking [6], even when there is the danger of discrimination against particular groups (for example witch hunts, slavery, the stand for war or peace, etc.).

It is the duty of the school to support students in learning how to unravel the complexity of societal issues, working to compensate for the one-sided and confusing ways in which some issues are presented in the media and making sure that young people gain a balanced understanding of important issues, preventing the risk of both polarization [7] and homogenization.

Unfortunately, young people do not often have an opportunity to discuss controversial issues [8] and to learn how to embrace other perspectives [9].

The main aim of the project and of this paper is to support teachers in their work for civic education at school in order to help learners in their process of becoming active, responsible citizens, able to consider controversial topics under several points of view and to take reasoned decisions. With this aim, the partners of the ECCOPS project produced innovative teaching/learning materials and involved teachers in testing it.

2. Conceptual Clarification and Methodology

The partners of the Consortium ECCOPS clarified the main concepts, following the International Civic and Citizenship Study ICCS p 31 [10], the Eurydice Report [11] and the “Democratic and Inclusive School Culture in Operation” (DISCO) programme of the Council of Europe and the European Union [12].

2.1. Civic and Citizenship Education

The Eurydice Report reminds us that civic education or civics usually refers to the process of transmitting knowledge concerning a country’s constitutional structure and political institutions, while citizenship education covers additional competences, such as social responsibility, as well as skills for ensuring effective interpersonal relations and successful personal development. In democratic societies, citizenship education [13] supports students in becoming active, informed and responsible citizens [14], who are willing and able to take responsibility for themselves and for their communities at the national, European and international level.

According to the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS), civic participation refers to the manifestations of individuals’ actions in their communities, including schools as the immediate context for students; the level of participation can range from awareness to engagement through decision-making, influencing and community participation [15]. Civic and citizenship education pursues, among other things, the goal of encouraging people to have a say and for co-determination in matters that affect them.

As controversy is an integral part of democratic societies, learning how to deal with controversial issues is at the heart of civic education [16].

2.2. Multiperspectivity

In the foreground of the present work is ‘Multiperspectivity’, a form of representation in which a controversial issue is viewed from several perspectives.

There is an ongoing debate about defining what topics should be labelled as ‘controversial’ [17] according to various criteria.

Controversial issues can be defined, according to Stradling, Noctor and Baines (1984), as “those problems and disputes that divide society and for which significant groups within society offer conflicting explanations and solutions based on alternative values” [18]. The controversy in topics usually stems from disagreements about issues based on matters of fundamental beliefs or value judgements related to religious, cultural, ethnic and social differences and moral issues [19], varying from individual to individual, from culture to culture [20].

Controversy is understood by reference to the existence of intellectual tension between at least two of the positions, which must seem plausible options for belief [21]. They arouse strong feelings and may represent the basis of conflicts based on competing interests; those conflicts can rarely be resolved by appealing to empirical evidence [22].

A topic becomes controversial in relation to the social, cultural and temporal context. A controversial topic in one society or era may not be controversial in another society or era. For example, women’s suffrage evolved from a controversial political issue of the past to one that is no longer controversial; furthermore, the idea of state-funded healthcare is controversial in the United States of America but not in European countries.

The altera pars was recommended to be taken into consideration in the past too. In the early 1970s, the political turmoil and conflicts following the social movements of 1968 led to heated discussions and accusations of indoctrination in education in Western European countries [23], and the question had to be faced more directly. Several new educational proposals have been developed.

Not all learning issues are to be dealt with in a multiperspective view. As it is stated in the ‘Beutelsbach Consensus’ (1976), matters which are controversial in scholarship and political affairs should also be presented as controversial in the classroom [24]. The ‘Beutelsbach Consensus’ is a shared professional principle to which civic education is committed; it has become a cornerstone in the German education sector and inspires discussions. It is a minimal consensus, which defines the basic requirements for professional pedagogical action. It states the prohibition against overwhelming the student (principle of no indoctrination) and recommends giving weight to the personal interests of students (principle of engagement and action).

2.3. Methodology

The partners of ECCOPS cooperated together in person and online to develop strategies and materials for an innovative enacted curriculum in civic education; every partner had the task to lead some activities, and the others gave their contribution for deepening and improving the common work.

The list of the items (competences and habits) in the Competence Cards was compiled based on previous studies and was improved according both to expert comments during validation interviews and to the feedback of the schools, keeping in mind the international scientific debate and the best practices in their own countries.

The ECCOPS working materials, including the Competence Cards, have been tested by teachers with student-centred actions, with attention to the cognitive and affective–behavioural domains. The 45 teachers are a sample from a wider population, selected according to the following criteria: fluency in English, age, school level, sex, teaching subject and interest in cooperating in the project.

For the purpose of checking the effectiveness of the ECCOPS educational strategies and instruments, partners exchanged reciprocally expertise and organized the earning/eaching/raining ctivities (LTTAs) at the European level: a transnational online webinar for the teachers and an in-person European pilot course for the students conducted in the regular classes of the schools involved in the project.

Part of the work performed in the LTTAs was monitored through videos on the performed school activities, observed by partners in the role of critical friends in the Mutual Monitoring Supporting Activities, in order to link theory and practice and to discuss the role of the teachers, who are asked to be aware of what controversial issues are, as well as which challenges they pose, and how to deal with them in school.

After the comments of the pilot teachers, the partners revised the texts, added and removed some questions, made items clearer and changed the order of them, when appropriate.

3. The ECCOPS Project

The ECCOPS ‘Education for Citizenship Competence to Participation and Sustainability’ project, financed by the European Union’s Erasmusplus Action [25], aims to foster education for participation and sustainable development in schools across Europe and to enhance the qualification of teachers.

The partners UCIIM (Unione Cattolica Italiana Insegnanti Medi) in Italy, Universidad de la Laguna in Spain and Inspectoratul Scolar Judetean Buzau in Romania worked together in order to empower students to have citizenship competence in participation and sustainability in the European dimension [26].

The ECCOPS project has the purpose, among other things, of enabling teachers and learners to consider multiple perspectives in handling controversial issues.

The main products of ECCOPS, available in open access (website www.eccops.eu), are the Toolkit, in four languages (the national languages of the three partners and English), which includes the Guidelines for the teachers and the learning material for the students; the Matrix of competences of the teachers; and the Competence Cards for the students with indicators to (self)assess the improvements.

The Toolkit for the students offers flexible learning material intended as part of a general school learning plan, providing a basis for further enquiries by the students, to complement existing schoolbooks. It is suitable for use on a Europe-wide basis; it is appropriate for teachers, regardless of their subject specialism, and also for teacher trainers and ongoing teachers.

The study material for learners is presented in five chapters, which can be tackled independently of each other; it is organized according to the main questions: who, what, why, when and where, so that this scaffolding helps to structure and remember ideas, facts and data, paying attention to inclusion.

Teachers can adopt the Toolkit by choosing what is appropriate for their context, adapting the materials to their students’ interests and learning levels. The activities are designed for lower and upper secondary school and vocational education; the texts can be used in a simplified version for lower learners and enriched with in-depth studies for students with higher interest.

The Toolkit is linked to the Competence Cards for students, which clarify the expected outcomes and support the assessment and self-assessment of the learning steps of the students [27].

4. Results

The results of ECCOPS include findings for the teacher training and for the educational work in the classroom. I deal here with the multiperspective approach in civic education, addressing the role of teachers, the aims and the contents, the teaching context in the classroom and outside it, the teaching strategies and the evaluation, especially the Competence Cards.

Each partner of the project gathered feedback by the teachers through a questionnaire about the results and about the improvement of the produced teaching materials; they were shared at an international level. For the observation and monitoring of the teaching methods, schools provided videos on selected parts of the LTTAs (earning/eaching/raining ctivities). In the last European webinars, the results were discussed according to a common template of items.

4.1. The Role of Teachers

Teachers are called upon to help students grapple with controversial questions to strengthen democratic behaviour both for a pluralistic formation of opinions and for preventing controversies becoming conflicts. Not all teachers are ready for this approach [28] and able to ensure good-quality and safe teaching on controversial topics.

Skilful teaching of controversial issues requires high-order competences [29], complex capabilities [30], careful preparation and continuous reflective practice [31]. A necessary premise is creating a safe, supportive and open climate, caring for a good classroom management and promoting a supportive school ethos.

The teachers decide whether controversial topics are discussed in the class or not and select and introduce relevant material, new information, ideas or arguments, presenting issues fairly, based on comprehensive sources of information; they apply a range of appropriate, specialized teaching strategies, supporting students in developing a sound basis for making judgements [32].

Teachers encourage inquiry-based learning and problem-solving activities and train for dialogue and peaceful conflict resolution, ‘scaffolding’ the student’s interactions. At the same time, they have the task of exploring the emotive nature of controversial issues and recognizing the participants’ emotions.

The ability to plan and manage a substantive discussion effectively is identified as an important teacher competence, in order to show students how arguments may be built on and developed, helping them see an issue from someone else’s perspective, particularly when it involves unpopular groups [33].

It is difficult to keep up to date with sensitive topics, turning them into positive teaching opportunities [34]. It is helpful for teachers to cooperate with others (e.g., school staff and parents), inviting different colleagues to work on particularly complex issues and, in some cases, bringing in outside speakers and/or representatives of organizations with experience of particular controversial issues who can talk to students first-hand.

Despite the need for high competences, nearly half of the countriesanalysed by the Eurydice Report 2017 have still not introduced regulations or recommendations on the inclusion of citizenship education in initial teacher education, and training for teaching controversial issues is not common [35], undermining the enactment of handling controversial questions.

Consideration should be given to developing teachers’ competence in this field [36] during both pre- and in-service training, including aspects of practice, overcoming the long-standing divide between theory and practice identified in university-based teacher education [37].

4.2. Aims and Contents

Civic education helps young people to develop competences of democratic citizenship, such as open-mindedness, responsibility and an active role in their school and in their communities. Multiperspective investigation of controversial issues can achieve important goals starting with training students to recognize controversial issues for themselves.

This educational activity develops thinking skills, ability to collect and interpret information, emotional awareness, critical judgement, interpersonal and intercultural attitudes, communication and dialogic skills.

Having constant access to the internet and social media on their mobile phones and laptops, students should learn how to find reliable information and how to select and analyse media products on the considered topic, becoming able to see through propaganda and manipulation, to detect bias, to recognize rhetoric, to distinguish opinion from fact and to spot emotive language.

The development of higher-order independent critical-thinking skills starts from information processing, which implies analysis of sources, enquiry, reasoning and formulation of arguments by examining different viewpoints on a topic. It is an opportunity to expand basic content knowledge and deepen learning [38].

In civic education, students learn to weigh up arguments and to construct clear and sharp points, even when an issue is not well defined or particularly complex, in order to form politically structured and reflected judgements on the basis of reason and evidence for responsible position-taking and decision-making.

The ability to develop argued justifiable positions on a topic excludes too quick judgements about people and actions, avoiding a simple division into “good” and “bad” or “black” and “white” but rather questioning unreflective and subjectivist judgements.

The teachers involved in the project reported in the webinars that engaging in multiperspective discussions improves language and communication skills of the students and develops the ability to discuss contentious issues in civil and productive ways, putting opinions forward calmly and eloquently and avoiding resorting to hectoring and aggressive language.

Thanks to multiperspective education students decentre their own worldview [39], become more aware and question their individual view of society, reflecting on their own position; it helps to become clear about one’s own values in order to explore the opportunities for one’s own actions in political and social responsibility. Students learn to recognize possible after-effects of ideological patterns and worldviews, preventing polarization, extremism and radicalization.

When strong emotions are involved, classes can easily become polarized [40], and the challenge is preventing hostility between students despite different positions.

Multiperspectivity is associated with acceptance of heterogeneity; it should enable students to view conflicts from different perspectives, accepting that other people can perceive the same event differently, fostering respect for the opinions of others and overcoming prejudices and stereotypes.

It promotes interpersonal skills and intercultural dialogue, when it involves the understanding of collective cultural experiences of other peoples.

Learning how to engage in dialogue with different people and to respect them is a basis to resolve differences democratically without resorting to violence, to protect, strengthen and uphold a democratic society [41].

About the learning contents, many controversial topics are included in school curricula; in addition, students very often raise controversial questions [42], expressing spontaneous remarks. Civic education has shifted in recent years from reliance on textbooks to active and participatory learning and engagement with contemporary topics with a direct impact on students’ lives.

Controversial topics are perceived as challenging to teach when they are authentic, contemporary and reflect ongoing public debates [43], sometimes brought up in the media too [44], but everyday life questions are perceived as more difficult to discuss.

Properly grasping the complexity of the considered issues requires knowledge of the economic, sociological, political, historical and psychological factors involved.

Multiperspectivity motivates people to acquire important content-related knowledge, precise factual information to support their position of a controversial nature and to think about it more deeply, carefully ascertaining the facts and data.

There are questions in all fields: political–economic topics (conflicts, political protest, policy of the EU, legal and illegal migration, slavery, nuclear weapons, world peace, etc.), ethical (corruption, etc.), sociocultural (cancel culture, extremism and radicalization, sexual identity, cyberbullying, human rights and equalities legislation, racism, xenophobia, etc.), scientific (climate change and its causes, environment, cannabis, etc.), and religious (religious symbols, mosque-building, etc.) issues.

In the ECCOPS project, partners approached the learning contents asking some main questions, which students themselves can transfer from one issue to another. Frequent questions include the following: ‘What is the issue about?’, What has happened? From which sources do you know that? ‘What are the arguments?’, ‘What is assumed?’, ‘Are the arguments manipulated and how?’, ’When did it start?’, ‘What are the causes of the present situation?’, ‘What are the desirable ends to work towards solutions?’, ‘When was the information reported? by whom?’ and ‘With which potential aims?’

In deciding about the criteria for the selection of the topics to be considered, teachers have to take into account the age, knowledge, values and experiences of the students and of the classroom climate; not every issue will be suitable for every age group.

4.3. Teaching Context and Strategies

The school environment inside and outside the classroom impacts the handling of controversial topics [45].

The ethnic and socio-economic composition of the class as well as the ideological diversity within it may exacerbate the difficulty of discussing controversial matters [46].

According to Reinhardt, there are different learner groups: ‘politically heterogenous’, where the teacher only needs to act as a moderator; ‘politically polarized’, where the teacher must ensure a minimum consensus of rules; ‘politically homogenous’, where the teacher must introduce other points of view; or ‘uninterested’, where the teacher might have to provoke students [47].

A constructive environment helps students to express their ideas and to defuse tensions.

Teachers feel safer and more confident in handling controversial topics if they are supported by their school [48] and by their community, whereas a lack of support can hinder the teachers’ willingness to engage in facing controversies.

The context can be improved. The creation of a safe atmosphere where students are free from any fear of expressing reasonable points of view, where controversial issues can be debated openly, promotes a supportive democratic culture across the school [49].

The school leadership is expected to support classroom teachers in performing this task, properly addressing any anxieties of parents and others outside the school.

There are several effective strategies for multiperspective teaching. It is not possible to lay down hard rules to be applied at all times. Since different circumstances in the classroom require different methods, what is needed first is sensitivity to context and flexibility of response.

The best strategies are those that achieve greater commitment and the assumption of responsibilities, both from teachers and students.

Among the teaching strategies for handling controversial issues, enquiring and problem-based learning, together with documented classroom discussions, are common.

If a balanced range of opinions does not emerge from the students’ group, then it is up to the teacher to ensure that the other aspects are brought up, especially when ill-informed views are being expressed, avoiding the effect of reinforcing existing attitudes and prejudice, and aiming to prevent radicalism and fanaticism, getting students to take each other’s points of view in a discussion [50].

The teacher adopts the role of a chairperson of a discussion group and gives everyone a chance to take part in discussion, helping weaker students or marginalized minority groups in class to have a voice and prevent discussions from becoming too heated.

The quality of discussion of controversial issues in classrooms and schools implies measures to prevent friction when discussing topics that can directly affect students’ identities [51], taking care that students’ dissenting opinions are treated with respect.

Establishing codes of conduct or classroom ground rules is required in order for the students to know how to behave when there is disagreement over an issue in discussions, so that classroom control is maintained, and students are able to discuss freely.

To prevent discrimination, the sensitivities of students from different backgrounds and cultures and of those with a personal or family involvement in the topic are to be protected, so that students do not feel embarrassed or are subject to bullying.

Teaching controversial issues works well if appropriate support resources are available, included training programmes for teachers. Schoolbooks and educational media have a strong influence.

Controversial matters are often contemporary questions in a state of constant flux, such that it is difficult to obtain teaching materials which deal with these disputes adequately or in a suitably balanced way.

Regarding the contents, Position Cards reporting different positions on controversial issues based on precise references to the information sources on the discussed topics are good instruments; regarding the learning process, the ECCOPS partners used Competence Cards.

4.4. The ECCOPS Competence Cards as Self-Evaluation Tools

Evaluation of the students learning results is highly demanding in civic education; it cannot be a standardized process [52]. A qualitative approach for the assessment and evaluation of learning, based on quantitative data, has to be preferred, according to the principles of formative assessment [53] for learning.

Teachers can judge the learning process, the quality of the documentation and the coherence of the argumentations but not the closeness of the opinions to their own positions.

Active participation by students in their own assessment [54] is a reflection made by learners themselves on aspects of their own performance. It is an opportunity for pupils to think about their habits in learning, about their skills in obtaining and managing information, in understanding different positions and developing judgements and in thinking about values and attitudes towards responsibilities in citizenship. It does not mean giving marks.

There are problems linked to the validity and accuracy of self-perceptions [55], and the list of indicators of the Competence Cards strongly supports analysing the individual learning process in several competences and for planning improvement.

In ECCOPS, the Competence Cards are shared observation and reflection sheets to identify the strengths and weaknesses of individuals’ learning. They were developed by the project partners under the leadership of the Spanish partners: Lidia Santana Vega, Milena Trenta and Olga González.

The Cards were developed by the partners according to the needs of the learners in their countries, keeping in mind the international research and the good practices [56] in this field. They were tested in the LTTAs and were improved after the feedback from the teachers involved.

Using the Competence Cards, in digital or paper form, students respond to the listed statements on a four-point scale, monitoring the development of their learning and improving knowledge, skills and values against the indicators listed on the cards.

Twelve Competence Cards were developed in the ECCOPS project: 1—participation at school—I care; 2—civic participation; 3—learning to learn; 4—communication; 5—conflict management; 6—active citizenship; 7—multiperspective thinking; 8—how to be well informed, avoiding misinformation and fake news; 9—inclusion, diversity and solidarity; 10—group work and cooperation; 11—sustainable consumption; and 12—making a decision [57].

The Competence Card ‘Multiperspective thinking’ is used together with the Competence Cards on information, communication and participation (see

Table 1. The Competence Card ‘Multiperspective thinking’.

Competence card n. 7—Multiperspective thinking

Name: ________________________ Last name: ___________________________ Level: ___________________________ Self-evaluation: Check the box which mostly corresponds with your behaviour when you have to understand or analyze or explain a complex issue. R = Rarely or never; S = Sometimes; F = Frequently or often; A = Always or almost always

I get informed and documented about the issues (problems, news, values, norms, events etc.) I can understand most social, political, economic topics. I place each perspective in its temporal and spatial dimension. I check how the opinions are reliable and well-founded, using criteria as: precision of documentation, coherence of argumentation, reliability, etc. I am interested in evaluating the pros and cons of the questions and try to understand the reasons of the statements. I recognize similarities and differences of the different perspectives based on criteria as: ethical principles, possible interests of lobbies, affiliation, etc. I recognize the risk of unique thinking, even in the past. I try to form a personal, documented and balanced opinion on social, political, economic issues, exploring problems from different perspectives. I appreciate diversity—in biological, social, cultural areas, and see it as a resource for positive developments. I recognize what values I have in common with other people in my community when discussing important issues. It’s worthwhile to discuss controversial issues with people who have different perspectives. I consider seriously different points of view. 4I reflect on my beliefs. I’m aware of my emotional involvement. I’m aware of the strengths and weaknesses of my perspectives. I know the importance of autonomy and responsibility. I am not easily influenced by the opinions of others. I identify the elements of the conflict/disagreement about the issue. I express properly my opinion, even when they are different from those of the majority of other students. I try to come to an agreement with groups of people to address important issues.

).

The use of the Competence Cards is flexible; students focus on some items and can include new ones to reflect on pluralistic realities and controversial views, fostering awareness among the students of their competences in considering different points of view on controversial topics.

5. Discussion

There is some concern about the appropriateness of addressing sensitive controversial issues in school and about the ways in which they are taught. Handling controversial issues at school seems to be compounded by their complexity and dynamic nature; there is the danger that it can be divisive and can turn students against each other; when dealing with contradictory sources, learners can become confused or surprised.

This teaching/learning form raises difficult pedagogical questions, for example the risk of indoctrination, the fear of the teachers in front of controversial matters, the concern about the opportunity of expressing their own opinion and the risk of relativism.

This places great demands on teachers. Teachers sometimes opt not to discuss controversial, sensitive topics in the classroom because of reasons which range from a perceived lack of instructional time to fear of arousing public suspicion among students, parents, religious groups and communities, public authorities or even among teachers themselves and the school administration.

The orientation of the school systems to examination and results implies that teachers do not devote time specifically to controversial topics because they mostly have to teach on a evaluationbasis and practise answering exam questions.

Many teachers avoid controversial issues because they feel unprepared to meettheir challenges and do not know how to properly address them.

A teacher’s willingness to discuss controversial topics can be related to several factors: their knowledge and familiarity with the topic and also their professional identity [58], their socio-economic ethnic and religious background.

Ensuring multiperspectivity in teaching–learning processes does not mean allowing extremist and anti-democratic positions, nor portraying them as equal and legitimate. Respect for the freedom and opinions of those who think differently about controversies does not mean neutrality falling into the trap of arbitrariness or relativism, giving the impression that all opinions are equally sound.

Civic education in schools is required to stand up for democratic principles, human rights, equality, pluralism and protection of minorities. School teaching is first and foremost committed to the National Constitutions and to the UNO eclaration of human rights if, for example, racist, violent statements are not allowed in the classroom

A difficult question is how to ensure that issues are handled fairly, preventing indoctrination. School-based civic education excludes taking a party-political position [59], but teaching is not and cannot be value-free or neutral [60].

Everyone carries a set of beliefs and values which affect the way they see the world and operate within it; this often goes unnoticed by the people who hold them. Teachers should reflect on the impact of their own beliefs on their teaching and explore the way their values can affect their professional attitudes towards controversial issues in the classroom.

With regard to the question of whether or not teachers should disclose openly their own opinions to students, it is up to the teachers to judge when it is appropriate to share their point of view with students and to decide when it is better to state their preferences after discussion rather than before, keeping in mind that students will try to guess the position of the teachers.

A balanced approach to controversial questions is part of education for democratic citizenship; a basis for students to increase awareness of the socio-economic context is to become active competent citizens.

6. Conclusions

The ECCOPS project is a European effort to design innovative training strategies and materials for civic education and for teacher training, among others, to explore multiperspective teaching of controversial issues.

In this article, I discussed the reasons, the aims and the strategies for multiperspective teaching on controversial topics at school, in order to provide new solutions and effective teaching materials to improve citizenship education.

Youngsters are overwhelmed to flounder in a sea of information; controversies have to be approached in a multiperspective way in democratic societies.

The teaching and learning process can never be neutral [61]; as such, schools are called to offer students the opportunity to engage with different perspectives on controversial issues, preparing them for a responsible civic participation.

High competences are required to teach controversial matters safely and fairly, as they are complex and multi-layered issues and involve emotional elements.

There is no one-size approach in teaching methods. Teachers are asked to use appropriate information, to care for a constructive learning context, to foster independent thinking and to face the emotions that are likely to arise when controversial issues are discussed. It is important that they reflect on the impact of their own beliefs and values on their professional attitudes towards controversial topics.

The results of this project offer support to the teachers. The work with the ECCOPS Competence Cards provides a framework to support students in their active role in learning and in self-assessment because they offer them a guide for reflection.

Especially in climates of heated public discourse [62], listening to other people’s points of view in dealing with controversies becomes a challenge for democratic education, a step forward in order for intergroup conflicts [63] to be channelled into non-violent competition [64] and a bulwark against both extremism and homogenization.

An obstacle to addressing controversial issues is to be linked to possible anxieties about the effects of introducing such issues, especially the risk of bias or undue teacher influence or indoctrination. The difficulty of this task and the pressure on teachers from the school organization, from the leadership and from parents are great in some situations, so teachers often prefer to teach topics that they find to avoid problems.

It appears to be important to foster teachers’ competence and willingness to discuss controversial topics, making teachers feel competent and safe in addressing complex difficult societal issues in the classroom.

Empirical research in this field is very limited. More needs to be inquired about how teachers’ views and beliefs affect the discussion of controversial topics and on the role of the school leaders in their support for teachers.

The most relevant project results are expected to have an impact at both institutional and practical levels in civic and citizenship education and potentially on one’s teaching of controversial issues. ECCOPS partners hope that controversial issues might be introduced into the official school curriculum in systematic and sequenced ways, and that the strategies for teaching controversial issues will be considered a priority area for the initial and in-service teacher training.

It is a commitment of schools and universities to engage so that future teachers are provided with opportunities to train and practise teaching controversial matters. Multiperspective teaching of controversial issues has an important part to play in the preparation of young citizens for participation in society, so that students get involved; exchange ideas and practices; learn balanced, documented approaches to the questions; and become able to make motivated decisions.

The practical implication of this study is expected to be in the teacher training and in the school practice, being a support for properly addressing controversial topics in the classroom and for developing students’ competences in multiperspective learning, preventing conflicts and fanaticism.

Hopefully, it is a basis for preventing conflicts and encouraging people to express their position even if it does not fit with the dominant one without being subject to harassment, offering their contribution to the common decision-making.