Unlocking STEM Pathways: Revealing STEM Choices and Science Teachers Empowering Black Queer Students

Abstract

Despite efforts to address racial disparities in STEM fields, little attention has been paid to the experiences and aspirations of queer and trans Black (QT Black) students in grades K-12. This study explored whether there were any significant differences in the choice of STEM majors between QT Black students and non-QT Black students. We found that Black QT students are less likely to choose STEM majors. Additionally, we found significant differences in science teachers’ perceptions of teaching, comparing between QT Black and non-QT Black students. Finally, we found that several factors predicted science-teacher perception of collective responsibility, perceptions of content professional learning community (PLC), self-efficacy, perception of content teacher expectations, and perceptions of principal support for teachers of QT Black and non-QT Black students. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

1. Unlocking STEM Pathways: Revealing STEM Choices and Science Teachers Empowering Black Queer Students

In February 2024, the Human Rights Campaign (an LGBTQ advocacy group in the United States that is the largest LGBTQ political lobbying organization within the United States) released their Black LGBTQ+ youth report (full report can be found at https://www.hrc.org/press-releases/human-rights-campaign-report-releases-new-data-on-experiences-of-black-queer-youth; accessed on 20 February 2024). Two significant findings highlighted in this report are inclusive educational environments for Black LGBTQ+ youth and the obstacles they encounter in achieving higher education degrees. For example, the “Human Rights Campaign 2024 Black LGBTQ+ Youth” report notes that nearly all (96.9%) of Black LGBTQ+ youth were open about their LGBTQ+ identity with their peers at school, whereas only about half (57.9%) disclosed this aspect of their identity to some of their teachers or school staff. Moreover, while a majority (82.6%) of Black LGBTQ+ youth express interest in attending college, an overwhelming majority (92.2%) perceive college as crucial. However, around a quarter (26.6%) of Black LGBTQ+ youth express concerns that their LGBTQ+ identity could potentially have adverse effects on their future college and higher-education prospects. This report draws attention to the educational challenges of Black queer and trans youth (Black QT hereinafter). It offers an opportunity for school districts to create inclusive settings, while also addressing the concerns of Black QT students about discrimination or obstacles in pursuing higher education [1].

Despite increased efforts to tackle racial disparities in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics over the past decade [2], there has been little attention given to the PK-12 experiences and educational aspirations of Black queer and trans (Black QT) students. Although Black queer and trans students have oppressive experiences with systemic barriers and discrimination, they exhibit agency and resilience, harnessing their cultural strengths and community support networks to navigate and overcome obstacles within the educational system. In laying out a science-education research agenda for Black QT students, Leyva’s framework of STEM Education as a White Cisheteropatriarchal Space provides a pathway for understanding how multiple social identities intersect and shape individuals’ experiences of oppression and privilege [3]. In particular, we focus on the relations and institutional dimensions of this framework. Within the context of education, this framework serves as a roadmap for investigating how systems of power and privilege operate within STEM fields, particularly for Black QT students.

To that end, this study maps factors from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09) onto Leyva’s framework of STEM as a White Cisheteropatriarchal Space (WCHPS) to explore the STEM experiences of Black queer and trans (QT) students and their non-queer and trans (non-QT) counterparts. In this critical quantitative analysis, we seek to illuminate the distinct hurdles encountered by Black QT students within STEM education. Through these revelations, this research can inform the development of targeted interventions, policies, and educational practices that address the needs and promote the advancement of Black QT students in STEM education. Therefore, this study has the following research questions, followed by its respective hypotheses:

• Are there significant differences in STEM major choice between Black queer and trans (QT) students and Black non-queer and trans (non-QT) students?
  • Black non-QT students will be more likely to choose STEM as a major.
• Are there differences in the perceptions of science teachers of Black QT students and non-QT students, particularly in terms of teacher attitudes, expectations, and support?
  • Science teachers of Black QT students will not report science PLC scores significantly different from science teachers of Black non-QT students.
  • Science teachers of Black QT students will not report self-esteem scores significantly different from science teachers of Black non-QT students.
  • Science teachers of Black QT students will not report teacher expectation scores significantly different from science teachers of Black non-QT students.
  • Science teachers of Black QT students will report lower principal support scores than science teachers of Black non-QT students.
  • Science teachers of Black QT students will report higher collective responsibility scores than science teachers of Black non-QT students.
• What factors predict science teacher perception of collective responsibility, perceptions of content professional learning community (PLC), self-efficacy, perception of content teacher expectations, and perceptions of principal support for teachers of Black QT and Black non-QT students?
  • Science teacher’s certification type, race/ethnicity, and number of years teaching high-school science will significantly predict perception of collective responsibility, perceptions of content professional learning community (PLC), self-efficacy, perception of content teacher expectations, and perceptions of principal support for teachers for both teachers of Black QT and non-QT students.

2. Literature Review

In order to better understand the hurdles that Black QT students experience in science education, we conducted a literature review of relevant topics. Our focus within this literature review was specifically on relevant research pertaining to science education within the U.S. context. First, we reviewed the challenges and successes of Black students and queer students in STEM. Also, we explored the literature on science teacher expectations, attitudes, and support. Through these revelations, this review provides insight into targeted interventions, policies, and educational practices that address the needs and promote the advancement of Black QT students in STEM education.

3. Black Students STEM Degree Attainment at a Glance

U.S. colleges and universities are graduating fewer Black students in STEM fields, as indicated by trends in education research [4,5,6]. Based on evidence from the last ten years, Black student degree attainment in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) has remained stagnant despite the increasing number of STEM students graduating from colleges and universities in the United States. For example, Black students have the highest representation in social and behavioral sciences, earning 12% of bachelor’s degrees in 2020 [7]. Although Black students’ bachelor’s degree attainment varies depending on the science and engineering (S&E) field of study, Black students are still underrepresented in these fields compared to their overall population share. This trend is also supported by Pew Research, which indicates that Black students received around 7% of the STEM degrees granted in 2018, a figure that has seen minimal change since 2010 [8].

4. Queer Students STEM Degree Attainment at a Glance

A growing body of research suggests that LGBTQ students face particular challenges in STEM fields, which can impede their full engagement and success in these areas. For instance, data from the Higher Education Research Institute’s national longitudinal survey and found that individuals identifying as sexual minorities were 7% less likely to pursue further studies in STEM fields, opting instead for non-STEM disciplines [9].

Furthermore, Maloy et al. (2022) [10] discovered that transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) students persist in STEM majors at a rate approximately 10% lower than their cisgender counterparts. Despite TGNC students exhibiting high levels of academic ability and confidence, this disparity endures according to national longitudinal data from the higher-education research institute.

5. Cultivating Inclusive Learning Environments in Science Education: The Role of Identity

Recent studies have underscored that recognizing and embracing diverse identities, such as those of Black and LGBTQ+ individuals, are not just matters of equity and inclusion but are also crucial elements of scientific advancement [11,12,13]. As integral components of the educational institutions where they operate, teachers can wield a unique degree of influence and responsibility in shaping their students’ academic and social journeys [14]. In this sense, the attitudes, actions, and instructional techniques of teachers in these contexts play an important role in determining the inclusivity and equity of the learning environment. For instance, when teachers possess an understanding of identity, particularly in relation to LGBTQ+ and Black individuals, they can actively challenge preconceptions, prejudices, and institutional hurdles that may marginalize certain groups within the scientific community [15,16].

The Framework for K-12 Science Education outlines essential practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas for effective science education in grades K-12, serving as a foundational guide for educators. For science education, this is essential to address the complex challenges facing our world today. As the nation’s population becomes increasingly diverse, varied perspectives, experiences, and voices stand to enrich the landscape of scientific inquiry [17,18]. Yet, traditional teaching methods and scientific curricula persist in neglecting the lived experiences and underrepresentation of racial and sexual minorities [12,19]. In this context, representation becomes paramount—when LGBTQ+ and Black students see scientists and researchers who mirror their identities, it can foster a sense of belonging and potential, motivating them to pursue STEM careers and contribute meaningfully to the field [12,19].

5.1. Scholarship on Science Teacher Attitudes

A 2016 report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine emphasized the importance of continuous learning and avoiding phased learning and highlighted the need to enhance existing mechanisms like induction programs and professional development initiatives to support teachers’ professional growth over their careers [20]. Sha and colleagues investigated how a child’s family support impacts their success in learning science [21]. The findings suggest that kids who feel supported by their families are more likely to choose science activities and be more engaged in learning science because they develop a stronger interest in science and higher self-belief. Additionally, having resources at home, like learning space and materials, influences how much kids feel supported by their families, but it does not directly impact their interest or self-belief in science. Gerde and colleagues examined teachers’ confidence in teaching literacy, math, and science, and its impact on science instruction [22]. According to their findings, teachers’ confidence in teaching science was linked to how often they taught it, unlike literacy or math. Additionally, teachers’ education and experience did not affect their confidence in teaching science. This suggests that teacher training programs should prioritize science content and teaching strategies to enhance science instruction in early childhood classrooms, rather than solely focusing on literacy.

Hammack and Ivey studied K–5 teachers to assess their confidence in teaching engineering [23] The findings revealed that teachers generally have low confidence in teaching engineering and lack confidence in their knowledge of how to teach engineering concepts effectively. Moreover, notable differences in confidence levels were observed based on factors such as gender, ethnicity, whether the school was a Title I school, and the grade level taught. Schwarzhaupt and colleagues studied the challenges encountered by K-12 computer science (CS) teachers [24]. They discovered that most teachers join Communities of Practice (CoPs) to access better teaching resources. Teachers with more CS teaching experience tend to feel more confident and share resources more frequently. Additionally, teachers who instruct older students (middle and high school) feel more confident teaching CS compared to those teaching younger students (elementary school). McFadden and colleagues explored how rural math and science teachers utilized teacher learning communities to adjust to the Next Generation Science Standards during a two-year timeframe [25]. Their findings emphasize that teachers can enhance student learning outcomes by developing formative assessments to monitor students’ ongoing progress.

5.2. Scholarship on Science Teacher Expectations

Understanding science teachers’ perspectives on teaching expectations is crucial to understanding the factors that may contribute to the challenges they endure in the classroom regarding their pedagogy and collective responsibility. Lebak and colleagues investigated how collaborating with peers through video support can inspire change in a science teacher [26]. This study specifically examines the intricate dynamics between beliefs, teaching practices, and the adoption of inquiry-based instruction. The findings underscored that both belief and practice changes were facilitated through collaborative reflection and self-assessment during participation in the video-supported process. Lee and colleagues [27] investigated the impact of the P-SELL (Promoting Science Among English Language Learners) professional development intervention on teachers’ science knowledge and instructional practices. Their findings demonstrated a positive effect of the P-SELL intervention on teachers’ science knowledge and instructional practices, including teaching for understanding, inquiry, language development strategies, and home language use. Tuttle and colleagues investigated the impact of a 2-week training program on teachers’ knowledge of science and their teaching methods for young students [28]. Their findings indicated that participating teachers showed improved science knowledge and demonstrated better planning of lessons that encouraged students to think like scientists. Observations of classroom videos revealed that teachers employed new approaches to engage students in scientific discussions. Yadav and colleagues conducted a study to better understand the challenges faced by new computer science teachers in the classroom [29]. The results suggested that teachers face a number of challenges, including isolation, lack of adequate computer science background, and limited professional development resources. Miller and colleagues (2018) offer a critique of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). While acknowledging the potential for enhanced learning opportunities, the authors contend that the standards frequently position students to imitate predetermined priorities without allowing them to influence their own learning—a concept termed “epistemic agency” [30]. This lack of student agency, they argue, perpetuates a dynamic where students passively receive knowledge rather than actively participate in its construction. The authors advocate for addressing these contradictions within the NGSS framework.

Fischer and colleagues explore how AP Biology teachers engage in microblogging to enhance their professional learning. Through data collected from Twitter hashtags such as #apbiochat, #apbioleaderacad, and #apbioleaderacademy (involving 121 users and 2253 tweets), the study found that Twitter use among teachers reflects characteristics of effective professional development. The findings revealed that teachers’ interactions on Twitter foster a supportive environment for professional growth, potentially mitigating perceived professional challenges [31]. Wendell and colleagues investigated how elementary students grasp engineering concepts during classroom activities [32]. The study revealed that students learned engineering by discussing ideas, making design decisions, and creating posters. These findings highlight the importance of discussing various design versions and ending projects with multiple design recommendations rather than a single final solution. It is evident that creating space for science teachers to interact with one another is vital in encouraging collaborative practices that improve students’ academic performance and strengthen their pedagogical skills.

5.3. Scholarship on Teacher Support

Examining teacher support is vital because it illustrates how professional development empowers educators to adopt effective practices. Lewis and colleagues examined how high-school science teachers utilized professional development to enhance student engagement with science topics [33]. Two key findings emerged from their research. First, the duration of teachers’ participation in professional development was found to be the primary factor influencing changes over time. Second, the proportion of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds in a school had an impact on how effectively teachers initially implemented what they learned. Dogan and colleagues conducted a review of empirical studies that looked at how professional learning communities (PLCs) affect science teachers’ knowledge and practices [34]. According to their review of 14 studies, only a few studies focus on how PLCs for science teachers can improve student learning outcomes. While these studies did show that PLCs can help teachers improve their understanding of the subject and their teaching methods, the authors stressed the importance of using rigorous methods to assess the extent that PLCs actually benefit students.

Douglas and colleagues conducted a study involving two elementary schools to pinpoint the contextual factors influencing the long-term success of a professional development program for engineering education implementation [35]. Their findings showed that while the program had district-level administrative backing, there were notable differences in how teachers perceived support at the school level. Furthermore, teachers at the school where the program was sustained actively collaborated and co-taught with each other. Lochmiller and colleagues investigated how high-school administrators approach instructional leadership in math and science [36]. The study aimed to understand how differences in these subjects influenced the feedback administrators gave to teachers. Three main themes emerged from the analysis. Firstly, administrators tended to focus their feedback on teaching methods rather than content knowledge. Secondly, their past teaching experiences shaped their perspectives on math and science instruction, influencing the feedback they provided. Finally, administrators aimed to enhance the relevance of their feedback, often utilizing student assessment data as a valuable tool in this process.

Pringle and colleagues investigated how educational curriculum materials supported middle-school science teachers’ learning as part of a comprehensive professional development program. This program aimed to implement a reform-based science curriculum over five years. The researchers found that the curriculum not only improved teachers’ understanding of science content but also enhanced their teaching methods. Furthermore, the training program, backed by support from school leaders, contributed to science teachers feeling supported in their work. Trabona and colleagues investigated how science-teacher leaders evaluate their teaching practices within a community of practice and their level of involvement in these discussions [37]. The study involved participants from a grant-funded professional development program aimed at nurturing science-teacher leadership. Their findings revealed that fellows encountered challenges in engaging in meaningful conversations about teaching practices. Instead of focusing on identified teaching issues, discussions tended to revolve around emerging challenges, and there was encouraged discussion of teaching practices.

Gunning and colleagues conducted a study of 20 science teachers in a two-year fellowship [38]. These teachers engaged in a professional learning community with educators from various grade levels to enhance science instruction. The findings indicated that teachers appreciated the interconnectedness of science lessons across grades and credited collaboration with colleagues from different levels for improving their teaching skills. These findings underscore the collaborative benefits of professional development. Yang and colleagues investigated whether participating in an in-service professional development (PD) program focused on Interdisciplinary Science Inquiry (ISCs) improves teachers’ science teaching abilities and impacts students’ understanding of science concepts across subjects [39]. Their study revealed that program participation, along with school and teacher factors, influenced teachers’ understanding of subjects and their teaching methods. Additionally, implementing this method improved students’ comprehension of science concepts.

Yang and colleagues conducted a mixed-methods study to investigate how promoting teacher professional development in inquiry-based science teaching within a professional learning community (PLC) affects both teachers and students [40]. Their qualitative findings highlight the importance of collaboration among teachers in PLCs, as collaboration enhances their professional growth. The quantitative results further support this by showing that students taught by teachers who improved professionally performed better in science, suggesting a positive impact on student learning when teachers enhance their skills through professional development. Gould-Yakovleva and Liu explored the effect of an interdisciplinary science and engineering partnership (ISEP) project on teaching and learning practices, changes in teaching methods, and factors contributing to successful implementation of ISEP objectives at a specific school [41]. Their findings revealed that teachers integrated new research experiences and pedagogical knowledge into their instruction. Furthermore, collaborative efforts among project participants increased student interest and engagement in learning processes and fostered greater involvement of students, families, and the community in science-based educational events and activities organized by the team. Providing professional development and support for science teachers is crucial, as research consistently shows that these interventions significantly enhance their teaching effectiveness.

6. Theoretical Framework

6.1. STEM Education as a White Cisheteropatriarchal Space

This work is guided by Leyva and colleagues’ theory of STEM education as a White Cisheteropatriarchal Space (WCHPS) [3]. Researchers have explored methods to enhance inclusivity for LGBTQ+ individuals of color in STEM classrooms, while also examining the compounded effects of racism, sexism, and heteronormativity in academic environments [42,43]. While typically used in higher education settings, we employ this framework as an analytical tool in K-12 education to examine how the STEM educational environment perpetuates power structures that marginalize individuals from underrepresented backgrounds, particularly those who diverge from mainstream norms. In particular, we focus on the relations and institutional dimensions of this framework and describe how STEM settings might promote racial, gender, and sexual inequities, hence producing a hostile atmosphere for marginalized people.

According to Leyva and colleagues, the institutional dimension examines structural inequities that constrain STEM achievement and participation among QSOC [3]. This dimension is grounded in Queer Crit principles like confronting ahistoricism; it historicizes and deconstructs contemporary structures reinforcing queer of color oppression (Misawa, 2010). Additionally, informed by QOCC principles about intersectional lived experiences, it addresses how White cisheteropatriarchy shapes agency variation among QSOC. This dimension frames inquiry into anti-Black and cisheteronormative histories of STEM departments, revealing “neutral” structures that perpetuate underrepresentation and lack of support for QSOC. It also analyzes how historical White, cisheteropatriarchal structures in STEM shape individual agency for QSOC navigating them.

As stated in the framework, the relational dimension explores interactional forms of oppression and agency among QSOC in STEM education. Grounded in Queer Crit principles, it emphasizes the importance of experiential knowledge from QSOC narratives for dismantling White cisheteropatriarchy [44]. This includes counter-storytelling, a critical race methodology that centers racially minoritized individuals’ experiences to interrogate systems of oppression [45]. Additionally, informed by QOCC principles, it addresses the politics of queer visibility and racialized tensions of coming out for QSOC, highlighting their agency in navigating cisheteronormative cultures [46]. Overall, this dimension reveals how STEM’s racialized, cisheteronormative culture shapes everyday oppression and resistance among QSOC.

6.2. Institutional Dimension and Teacher Role

In this section, we delve into the institutional dimension of STEM education as a White Cisheteropatriarchal Space, focusing on how teachers serve as extensions of the institution, perpetuating and reinforcing these norms.

Teacher beliefs and stereotypes and teacher–student relationships: Teachers’ beliefs and attitudes can have a substantial impact on the educational experiences of minority students in STEM areas. Research has shown that teacher prejudices and biases might influence their expectations and interactions with students [47]. These biases may emerge as lower expectations or less opportunities for participation in rigorous STEM coursework, impeding minoritized students’ academic development [48]. As a result, addressing implicit biases and developing culturally sensitive teaching approaches are critical steps toward creating equitable STEM education environments. Minoritized students’ success in STEM education requires strong teacher–student connections. Positive connections with teachers can improve students’ sense of belonging and self-efficacy in STEM subjects [49]. According to Hulleman and colleagues, teacher support and encouragement can boost student motivation, engagement, and perseverance in STEM courses [50]. In contrast, negative teacher–student connections can have a negative impact on kids’ academic results and STEM aspirations [51]. Therefore, creating healthy relationships between teachers and underrepresented students is critical to their success in STEM.

Culturally relevant pedagogy and teacher professional development: Culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) considers the cultural backgrounds and experiences of marginalized students. Teachers who use CRP recognize the various perspectives and strengths that students bring to the STEM classroom [52,53]. According to Gay, using culturally relevant materials and instructional methodologies can improve minority students’ interest and achievement in STEM disciplines [17]. Furthermore, CRP can close the gap between students’ cultural identities and the STEM curriculum, making learning more relevant and accessible [52,53]. Effective teacher professional development programs are critical in this context. These programs can provide educators with the information and skills required to help minority children in STEM education (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Ladson-Billings emphasizes the importance of continual training in culturally responsive teaching practices and implicit bias awareness [52]. This type of professional development can help instructors build inclusive learning environments in which minority students feel respected and capable of thriving in STEM subjects [52].

6.3. Relational Dimension and Black QT Students Trajectory in STEM

In this section, we delve into the relational dimension of STEM education as a White Cisheteropatriarchal Space, focusing on the experiences of Black QT students.

Intersectionality + experiences in STEM education: In STEM education, the intersectional experiences of Black QT students are understudied. Intersectionality, a concept first presented by Kimberlé Crenshaw, emphasizes the interconnectedness of multiple dimensions of identity, including race, gender, and sexual orientation [54]. Existing research has generally focused on the experiences of Black STEM students or LGBTQ+ students in school, frequently disregarding the unique issues encountered by those at the intersection. Research on underrepresented STEM groups has revealed the presence of discrimination, stereotype threat, and bias [55]. However, STEM education research rarely digs into the particular experiences of Black LGBTQ+ students, who may face compounding biases and microaggressions as a result of their intersectional identities. This vacuum in the research restricts our knowledge of the complex ways that systemic oppression emerges in K-12 STEM education.

Well-being and educational interventions: The dearth of research on Black QT students’ experiences in STEM leads to a lack of understanding of their mental health and well-being. Scholars have documented how LGBTQ+ students in STEM disciplines may endure increased stress, anxiety, and depression as a result of prejudice [12,56]. However, little is known about how Black QT students face these issues and how they manage their mental health in the context of STEM education. There is limited research on treatments and support networks for Black QT students in K-12 STEM. Recognizing and comprehending these within-group variances is critical for establishing inclusive STEM environments. Therefore, effective solutions for developing inclusive STEM classrooms, as well as improving these kids’ retention and achievement, have received little attention. As a result, educators and policymakers lack evidence-based guidance on how to construct equitable STEM learning settings for this intersectionality underserved population.

7. Methods

The data used for this study come from the restricted-use High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09). The HSLS:09 consists of several waves of data collection from over 24,000 ninth-grade students and their parents, teachers, counselors, and administrators. The main objectives of the longitudinal study consisted of exploring secondary-to-postsecondary transition plans for students and identifying factors that impacted STEM recruitment and retention [57]. Up to date, there have been data collections in the 2009 base year [57], a follow-up in 2012 [58], high-school transcripts collected in 2013 [58], and a second follow-up in 2016 [59], which is also the year that gender identity and sexual orientation were first collected. At the time of the first wave of data collection, Black QT and non-QT students were about 14.8 years, or 178.8 months old (t = 0.17, df = 2235, and p = 0.87). At the time of the second follow-up, Black QT and non-QT students were about 21.5 years, or 258 months old (t = 0.78, df = 2235, and p = 0.44). Two variables were used to identify queer and trans individuals in the dataset: S4ORIENTATION (sexual orientation) and S4GENDERID (gender identity). Students who self-identified as lesbian or gay, bisexual, don’t know, or another sexual orientation were coded as queer. Students who self-identified as transgender, genderqueer, or nonconforming were coded as trans. We note that students’ sexual orientation and gender identity may be related, and thus, there may be some overlap in students who may count under both categories of queer and trans. For example, there are students who are queer and cisgender or heterosexual and trans. Additionally, for the purposes of this study, queer and trans students are collapsed into one group.

The sample used for this study consists only of students who identify as Black or African American, non-Hispanic (n = 3960). For descriptive statistics and details about the sample, see

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for variables of interest.

Variables of Interest	n	%	M	SD	Min	Max
Student’s race/ethnicity
American Indian/Alaska Native	1740	6.9
Asian	2780	11
Black/African American	3960	15.7
Latinx/Hispanic	4000	15.9
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander	630	2.5
White	17,980	71.3
Student’s gender identity
Cisgender man	7350	47.7
Cisgender woman	7790	50.6
Transgender, genderqueer or nonconforming, and/or unsure	260	1.7
Student’s sexual orientation
Lesbian or gay, that is, homosexual	360	2.4
Straight, that is, heterosexual	13,800	90
Bisexual	710	4.7
Don’t know	240	1.6
Another sexual orientation	210	1.4
Science teacher’s race/ethnicity
American Indian/Alaska Native	<10
Asian	350	2.2
Black/African American	690	4.3
Latinx/Hispanic	580	3.6
Multiracial	300	1.9
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander	30	0.2
White	14,240	87.9
Number of years science teacher has taught high-school science (N1SCIYRS912)	16,220		10.87	9.15	1	50 ⊗
Teacher perceptions
Science teachers’ perceptions of their professional learning community (X1TSCOMM)	13,880		0.04	1.00	−3.96	1.69
Science teachers’ self-efficacy (X1TSEFF)	14,300		0.11	0.99	−3.07	3.17
Science teachers’ perceptions of expectations’ (X1TSEXP)	14,640		0.10	0.98	−4.94	1.37
Science teachers’ perceptions of principal support (X1TSPRINC)	14,170		0.05	0.95	−3.36	1.48
Science teachers’ perceptions of collective responsibility (X1TSRESP)	14,380		0.05	0.96	−4.21	1.92

Note. All sample sizes rounded to the nearest 10 per NCES guidelines. Due to rounding and select-all-that-apply items, percentages may not add up to 100 (e.g., participants were able to select any race/ethnicity that applied); ⊗ = maximum was rounded to the nearest ten to mask outliers. Sources: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, and High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09), 2009 base year (BY).

. Of note, about 16% of the sample reports being Black or African American, non-Hispanic, and about 98% as cisgender. Additionally, the majority of the sample identifies as straight/heterosexual. We focus on science teachers for the purpose of this study. A majority of the science teachers (almost 88%) identify as White, and the average number of years that the science teacher has taught high-school courses is almost 11 years. No age data were provided for teachers in the dataset. Moreover, sample sizes are rounded to the nearest ten in accordance with Department of Education Institute of Educational Sciences guidelines.

7.1. Researcher Positionalities

We are a team of researchers committed to challenging inequities and fostering positive change in science education. As researchers committed to the principles of equity, justice, and inclusivity in science education, we recognize the profound importance of centering the experiences and aspirations of queer and trans Black (QT Black) students in our work. Our study emerges from a deep-seated belief in the inherent worth and potential of every individual, irrespective of their background or identity. In our exploration, we uncovered a disheartening reality: QT Black students face unique barriers and challenges in their educational journeys, particularly in the realm of STEM.

Our research not only sheds light on the underrepresentation of QT Black students in STEM majors but also unveils the pervasive biases and prejudices that shape the educational experiences of Black students in general. These findings compel us to reaffirm our dedication to challenging systemic racism, discrimination, and exclusion in all its forms. As we navigate the implications of our research, we are guided by a deep sense of responsibility to advocate for change at both the institutional and societal levels.

7.2. Variables of Interest

All the variables in this study come from the base-year data collection for math and science teachers, except for the student’s STEM major designation, which was collected in the second follow-up. STEM degree major was operationalized as a dichotomous variable (0 = not STEM; 1 = STEM). With regard to science teachers’ perceptions, we use the following variables (all continuous): science teachers’ perceptions of their professional learning community (X1TSCOMM), science teachers’ self-efficacy (X1TSEFF), science teachers’ perceptions of their expectations (X1TSEXP), science teachers’ perceptions of principal support (X1TSPRINC), and science teachers’ perceptions of collective responsibility (X1TSRESP). All of these continuous variables are latent constructs created using principal components factor analysis, already included in the dataset (see Section 5.5.2 of Ingels et al., 2011 [57], for detail on construct validity). For specific wording of each of the items that make up each latent construct, see the HSLS:09 User Manual (Ingels et al., 2011) [57]. We also controlled for number of years that the science teacher has taught high-school science (N1SCIYRS912) in the regression models.

7.3. Data Analysis

In order to identify if significant differences exist between Black QT and Black non-QT STEM major choice, the chi-square test was used, as it is the most appropriate analytical strategy given the dichotomous variable. To examine the differences in math and science teachers’ perceptions of professional learning community, self-efficacy, expectations of self, perceptions of principal support, and collective responsibility, multiple t-tests were used given the continuous nature of the variables. Finally, the multivariate ordinary least-squares regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between demographic variables and science teachers’ perceptions of professional learning community, self-efficacy, expectations of self, perceptions of principal support, and collective responsibility. For the regression analyses that used the science teachers’ perceptions, we used the weights W1SCITCH. All statistical analyses were carried out using Stata 17 [60].

8. Limitations

We attempted to choose the most relevant elements from the HSLS:09 dataset to correspond with Leyva’s framework in our analysis. While our analysis provides valuable insights, there are several limitations to consider. First, the study relies on self-reported data. Second, the correlational nature of the study does not allow us to establish causal relationships between the identified factors, limiting the interpretation of our findings. Nevertheless, we can draw inferences from the relationships identified between teacher attitudes, expectations, and support. Additionally, the use of nationally representative data enhances the generalizability of our results compared to findings derived from smaller sample sizes. Lastly, the range of variance accounted for by the models indicates that other unmeasured factors may significantly influence the outcomes examined, suggesting a need for further research to explore these dynamics comprehensively.

9. Results

9.1. Are There Significant Differences in STEM Major Choice Between Black Queer and Trans (QT) Students and Black Non-Queer and Trans (Non-QT) Students?

For the first research question, the results (

Table 2. Results comparing mean scores for variables of interest for queer/trans Black and non-queer/trans Black students.

	QT Black		Non-QT Black
Variables of Interest	M	SD	M	SD	t	p	Cohen’s d
F2 reference degree’s first major is STEM	0.07	0.258	0.16	0.364	−49.146	<0.001	0.354
BY scale of science teacher’s perceptions of science professional learning community	−0.122	0.967	0.096	1.01	−40.775	<0.001	−0.217
BY scale of science teacher’s self-efficacy	0.141	1.095	−0.039	1.123	30.399	<0.001	0.161
BY scale of science teacher’s perceptions of content teachers’ expectations	−0.023	0.988	−0.053	1.092	5.285	<0.001	0.028
BY scale of science teacher’s perceptions of principal support	−0.095	1.074	0.063	1.036	−28.617	<0.001	−0.152
BY scale of science teacher’s perceptions of collective responsibility	0.03	1.043	−0.007	1.092	6.493	<0.001	0.034

Note. Results are weighted. Sources: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, and High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09), 2009 base year (BY) and 2016 2nd follow-up (F2).

) highlight disparities in STEM major choices among Black students based on their identities. QT Black students reported a statistically lower likelihood of choosing a STEM major than non-QT Black students.

9.2. Are There Differences in the Perceptions of Science Teachers of QT Black Students and Non-QT Students, Particularly in Terms of Teacher Attitudes, Expectations, and Support?

With regard to the second research question, the findings show the importance of science teachers for Black students, as science teachers of QT Black students reported higher levels of self-efficacy, expectations of content teachers’ expectations, and collective responsibility. Science teachers of non-QT Black students reported higher levels of their PLC and principal support. Teachers of QT Black students showed the highest effect size for their self-efficacy, while teachers of non-QT Black students had the highest effect size for perception of their PLC. Understanding these dynamics for schools is crucial for developing targeted strategies to promote diversity and inclusion in STEM education.

9.3. What Factors Predict Science Teacher Perception of Collective Responsibility, Perceptions of Content Professional Learning Community, Self-Efficacy, Perception of Content Teacher Expectations, and Perceptions of Principal Support for Teachers of QT Black and Non-QT Black Students?

For the third research question, several factors predicted science teachers’ perceptions of their PLC, self-efficacy, perception of content teacher expectations, and perceptions of principal support. We present the results for science teachers of QT Black students first, and then for those of non-QT Black students. For both

Table 3. Regression results of associations between teaching certification; race/ethnicity; and scales of teacher’s perceptions of collective responsibility, professional learning community, self-efficacy, and teacher expectations for QT Black students.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Variables	CR	PLC	Self-Eff	Exp	PS
Science teacher’s certification type (ref = no certification)
Regular	−0.125	−0.050	−0.234	0.060	0.144
	(0.438)	(0.404)	(0.517)	(0.441)	(0.439)
Probationary	−0.098	0.061	−0.063	−0.037	0.069
	(0.631)	(0.583)	(0.751)	(0.636)	(0.634)
Emergency/temporary/waiver	−0.196	−0.135	−0.198	0.210	0.286
	(0.475)	(0.439)	(0.564)	(0.477)	(0.472)
Science teacher’s race/ethnicity (ref = White)
Asian, NH	0.068	−0.099	−0.296 **	0.032	0.149 *
	(0.387)	(0.356)	(0.437)	(0.390)	(0.383)
Black/African American, NH	−0.063	−0.020	0.191 *	0.016	0.080
	(0.347)	(0.320)	(0.405)	(0.350)	(0.347)
Hispanic	−0.125	−0.264 **	−0.311 **	0.141	0.314 ***
	(0.348)	(0.311)	(0.398)	(0.350)	(0.330)
Multiracial, NH	0.152	−0.294 **	0.028	0.250 **	0.220 **
	(0.433)	(0.383)	(0.521)	(0.426)	(0.426)
Number of years science teacher has taught high-school science	0.034	0.016	−0.137	0.041	−0.038
	(0.012)	(0.011)	(0.014)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of collective responsibility	.	0.180	0.041	0.216	0.341 ***
	(.)	(0.087)	(0.114)	(0.094)	(0.090)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of content professional learning community	0.175	.	−0.136	0.409 ***	0.289 **
	(0.102)	(.)	(0.122)	(0.096)	(0.099)
Scale of teacher’s self-efficacy	0.033	−0.111	.	−0.018	0.201 *
	(0.081)	(0.074)	(.)	(0.081)	(0.079)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of content teachers’ expectations	0.196 *	0.382 ***	−0.020	.	−0.034
	(0.093)	(0.081)	(0.113)	(.)	(0.096)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of principal support	0.367 ***	0.321 **	0.273 *	−0.041	.
	(0.089)	(0.084)	(0.110)	(0.096)	(.)
Observations	120	120	120	120	120
R-squared	0.434	0.417	0.288	0.376	0.475

Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001. All sample sizes rounded to the nearest 10 per NCES guidelines; standard errors (SEs) in parentheses; NH = non-Hispanic; CR = teacher’s perceptions of collective responsibility; PLC = teacher’s perceptions of content professional learning community; Self-Eff = teacher’s self-efficacy; Exp = teacher’s perceptions of content teachers expectations; PS = Teacher’s perceptions of principal support. Sources: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, and High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09), 2009 base year (BY).

and

Table 4. Regression results of associations between teaching certification; race/ethnicity; and scales of teacher’s perceptions of collective responsibility, professional learning community, self-efficacy; teacher expectations for non-QT Black students.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Variables	CR	PLC	Self-Eff	Exp	PS
Science teacher’s certification type (ref = no certification)
Regular	−0.013	0.144 **	0.057	0.041	−0.008
	(0.129)	(0.118)	(0.165)	(0.128)	(0.139)
Probationary	−0.033	0.078 *	0.069	0.072 *	−0.040
	(0.169)	(0.155)	(0.216)	(0.167)	(0.181)
Emergency/temporary/waiver	−0.010	0.125 **	−0.019	0.120 **	0.092
	(0.159)	(0.145)	(0.203)	(0.156)	(0.170)
Science teacher’s race/ethnicity (ref = White)
Asian, NH	0.083 **	0.005	−0.065 *	0.015	0.094 **
	(0.177)	(0.163)	(0.227)	(0.176)	(0.190)
Black/African American, NH	−0.051	−0.091 **	0.074 *	0.143 ***	0.121 ***
	(0.092)	(0.084)	(0.117)	(0.089)	(0.098)
Hispanic	−0.098 ***	0.072 **	0.057	−0.053 *	0.026
	(0.153)	(0.141)	(0.196)	(0.152)	(0.165)
Multiracial, NH	0.113 ***	0.143 ***	0.032	−0.045	0.056
	(0.116)	(0.106)	(0.150)	(0.115)	(0.125)
Number of years science teacher has taught high-school science	0.012	0.018	−0.054	0.091 ***	−0.030
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.004)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of collective responsibility	.	0.196 ***	0.263 ***	0.356 ***	0.078 *
	(.)	(0.029)	(0.041)	(0.030)	(0.035)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of content professional learning community	0.205 ***	.	−0.050	0.366 ***	0.353 ***
	(0.035)	(.)	(0.045)	(0.033)	(0.036)
Scale of teacher’s self-efficacy	0.171 ***	−0.031	.	−0.002	0.172 ***
	(0.025)	(0.023)	(.)	(0.025)	(0.027)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of content teachers’ expectations	0.375 ***	0.367 ***	−0.004	.	−0.029
	(0.031)	(0.028)	(0.042)	(.)	(0.035)
Scale of teacher’s perceptions of principal support	0.060 *	0.262 ***	0.206 ***	−0.021	.
	(0.030)	(0.026)	(0.038)	(0.030)	(.)
Observations	960	960	960	960	960
R-squared	0.439	0.466	0.138	0.467	0.280

Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001. All sample sizes rounded to the nearest 10 per NCES guidelines; standard errors (SEs) in parentheses; NH = non-Hispanic; CR = teacher’s perceptions of collective responsibility; PLC = teacher’s perceptions of content professional learning community; Self-Eff = teacher’s self-efficacy; Exp = teacher’s perceptions of content teachers expectations; PS = teacher’s perceptions of principal support. Sources: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, and High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09), 2009 base year (BY).

, Model 1 represents the teachers’ perceptions of collective responsibility, Model 2 represents perceptions of content PLC, Model 3 shows the regression results for science teachers’ self-efficacy, Model 4 shows the regression results for perception of content teacher expectations, and Model 5 shows the regression results for perceptions of principal support.

With regard to science teachers of QT Black students (Table 3), we found that the science teacher’s race/ethnicity was negatively associated with their perceptions of content PLC and their self-efficacy. Specifically, being a Hispanic science teacher and multiracial science teachers was associated with lower perceptions of content PLC, while being an Asian or Hispanic science teacher was associated with lower levels of science-teacher self-efficacy than White science teachers. Interestingly enough, Black science teachers reported higher levels of self-efficacy, compared to White science teachers. Lastly, Asian, Hispanic, and multiracial science teachers all reported higher perceptions of principal support than their White counterparts. Higher levels of the science teacher’s perception of collective responsibility were related to higher perceptions of principal support, while content PLC was associated with higher perceptions of teacher expectations and principal support. Higher levels of science teacher self-efficacy were related to higher perceptions of principal support, while higher levels of content teachers’ expectations were associated with higher collective responsibility and perceptions of their PLC. Finally, higher perceptions of principal support predicted higher levels of collective responsibility, perceptions of their PLC, and self-efficacy. The variables in the models account for between 28.8% and 47.5% of the variance in each outcome.

With regard to the science teachers of non-QT Black students (Table 4), we found that having any type of certification was positively related to perceptions of content PLC, and having probationary or emergency/temporary/waived certification was also positively related to perceptions of teacher expectations, compared to having no certification. There were mixed results regarding the science teacher’s race/ethnicity. Note that being a Black science teacher was negatively associated with perceptions of content PLC but positively associated with self-efficacy, teacher expectations, and perceptions of principal support, compared to White science teachers. More years of high-school science teaching experience predicted higher levels of teacher expectations. Higher levels of the science teacher’s perception of collective responsibility were related to higher perceptions of the PLC, self-efficacy, teacher expectations, and perceptions of principal support, while content PLC was associated with higher perceptions of collective responsibility, teacher expectations, and principal support. Higher levels of science teacher self-efficacy were related to higher perceptions of collective responsibility and principal support, while higher levels of content teachers’ expectations were associated with higher collective responsibility and perceptions of their PLC. Finally, higher perceptions of principal support predicted higher levels of collective responsibility, perceptions of their PLC, and self-efficacy. The variables in the models account for between 13.8% and 46.7% of the variance in each outcome.

10. Discussion

The present study explored the science experiences of QT Black and non-QT Black students in the United States, using the HSLS:09 restricted dataset. We choose to center QT Black students in our discussion, with a briefer focus on non-QT Black students. Our results show that QT Black students are less likely to choose a STEM major in college than their non-QT counterparts. This is not surprising, unfortunately, and shows empirical quantitative evidence of the impact of Leyva’s STEM as a WCHPS framework on QT Black students [3]. Within WCHPS, we investigated the relational and institutional dimensions by exploring science teacher factors and perceptions. We found that science teachers of QT Black students reported higher levels of self-efficacy and collective responsibility and lower levels of teacher expectations. That science teachers of QT Black students reported higher self-efficacy is surprising and contradicts past research that shows that teachers of minoritized students have lower self-efficacy [61]. We think this could be attributed to the amount of self-efficacy it takes to be an ally to QT students. This also explains the higher levels of collective responsibility and the lower levels of perception of principal support.

The results of our regression analyses highlight the importance of the relational and institutional dimensions of WCHPS on science teachers of QT Black students. We noted that being a Black science teacher was associated with higher self-efficacy. This is important considering, as mentioned previously, that self-efficacy is an important aspect of allyship for QT students. Higher levels of collective responsibility were associated with higher perceptions of PLC, self-efficacy, teacher expectations, and principal support. Past research has found links between collective responsibility and student achievement [62,63], suggesting that these higher levels of PLC perceptions, self-efficacy, expectations, and principal support may indirectly moderate student achievement. However, this further research is needed. Additionally, perceptions of PLCs related to collective responsibility, teacher expectations, and principal support. This study re-affirmed prior research that highlights the positive perceptions of professional learning communities (PLCs) with teacher professional development and retention [34,38]. According to Yang and colleagues, when done well, PLCs can foster positive growth for teachers [40]. In particular, one of the findings from Hallam and colleagues’ study of PLCs showed that principals have the ability to influence positive PLC development, which was supported by the findings of our study of QT Black students’ science teachers [64]. Overall, our study shows the interrelated and complex mechanisms at play for science teachers of QT Black students.

Implications for Practice

In this study exploring Black QT individuals and STEM, it is evident that Black QT students are less likely to choose a STEM major. According to Pew Research Center, when Black students were “asked what would help attract young Black people to pursue STEM degrees, a majority of Black Americans think it would help a lot of people saw more examples of high achievers in these areas who were” [65]. Visible representation is a key factor for Black students in deciding whether they want to major in STEM. Black QT students are even less represented in the STEM field compared to their heterosexual counterparts. This creates an opportunity for college leaders to connect with Black QT professionals in the STEM field to engage their students before they choose their major.

Also, institutions of higher education need to prioritize hiring Black QT professors for STEM classes. Not enough research has been performed regarding the social and academic benefits of Black QT professors on college campuses; however, it has been reported that faculty of color were also more likely than White faculty to place great importance on students’ affective, moral, and civic development [66]. It has been greatly reported the benefits of Black teachers at a secondary level [67,68,69,70]. If Black teachers can have such a positive impact on young Black children, imagine what can be achieved if there were an abundance of Black QT professors working in the STEM fields in higher education.

The Pew Research Center study further suggests that Black adults express some doubt about the openness of multiple professions to Black people, as ratings for scientists and engineers are among the lowest across the nine professional groups in the survey [65]. Knowing that STEM institutions are places where whiteness is centered can deter Black QT people from majoring in the field. Higher-education leaders must do a better job of transforming STEM spaces into places where Black QT students feel valued, affirmed, and respected. In order to design spaces that do not center White heteronormativity, universities and colleges must listen to their Black QT students and professors. Furthermore, Antar A. Tichavakunda suggests that higher-education institutions analyze how Black students co-create Black places to meet their needs and desires [71]. Colleges should strive to perform initial research with Black QT students to understand their unique needs and challenges in an effort to increase enrollment and retention in STEM programs. There have been several studies [72,73,74] that have shown the advantages of improving both the academic and social environment for Black students. A possible solution to the whiteness heteronormative of STEM spaces is to create a Black queer and trans union. There are few programs and organizations on college campuses that allow for the intersections of these identities to meet. A Black QT union can provide critical feedback to STEM program leaders, serve as a recruitment tool, and help draft more inclusive policies.

11. Conclusions

Overall, QT Black students are underrepresented in STEM, and teachers can help change that. While resources at high schools and school districts are becoming increasingly scarce, raising awareness and integrating in-class practices can change this dynamic. Future research should explore effective strategies for increasing participation in science and math courses among Black QT students.