Student Burnout in Higher Education: From Lockdowns to Classrooms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The COVID-19 lockdowns during the spring 2021 semester negatively and disproportionately affected the burnout of higher education students with lower remote learning and home environment sentiments.
- The return to the classroom during the fall 2021 semester will positively impact the burnout of students who struggled with remote learning.
- The level of a student’s self-efficacy remains significantly and negatively correlated to burnout during the spring 2021 and fall 2021 semesters.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Spring 2021 Semester Survey Design
2.2. Fall 2021 Semester Study Design
2.3. Instrument
2.3.1. Maslach Burnout Inventory (BUR)
2.3.2. Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (RES)
2.3.3. General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)
2.3.4. Online Education (OED)
2.3.5. COVID-19 Response (COV)
2.3.6. Home Environment (HME) (USM)
2.3.7. Hybrid Learning (HYB)
2.4. Data Reliability
3. Results
3.1. BOS and EOS Burnout Correlations
3.2. Results and Hypotheses
3.2.1. Hypothesis 1: Student Burnout, and Remote Learning Sentiment
3.2.2. Hypothesis 2: Student Burnout, and the Return to the Classroom
3.2.3. Hypothesis 3: Student Burnout, and Self-Efficacy
3.3. Factors Affecting Home Environments (BOS)
3.4. The Importance of University Self-Management (EOS)
3.5. BOS Burnout Linear Regression
3.6. EOS Burnout Linear Regression
3.7. BOS Burnout Mediation
3.8. EOS Burnout Mediation
4. Discussion
4.1. A Tale of Two Semesters
4.2. Recommendations
4.2.1. Measuring and Addressing Burnout
4.2.2. Hybrid Learning as the Great Compromise
4.2.3. The “New Normal” Is Permanent
5. Conclusions
6. Study Limitations and Future Work
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Freudenberger, H.J. Staff Burn-Out. J. Soc. Issues 1974, 30, 159–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maslach, C.; Jackson, S.E. The Measurement of Experienced Burnout. J. Organ. Behav. 1981, 2, 99–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaufeli, W.; Leiter, M.; Maslach, C.; Jackson, S. Maslach Burnout Inventory—General Survey. In The Maslach Burnout Inventory: Test Manual; Maslach, C., Jackson, S.E., Leiter, M.P., Eds.; Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA, USA, 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Maslach, C.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Leiter, M.P. Job Burnout. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2001, 52, 397–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hu, Q.; Schaufeli, W.B. The Factorial Validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory—Student Survey in China. Psychol. Rep. 2009, 105, 394–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schaufeli, W.B.; Martinez, I.M.; Pinto, A.M.; Salanova, M.; Bakker, A.B. Burnout and Engagement in University Students: A Cross-National Study. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 2002, 33, 464–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jacobs, S.R.; Dodd, D. Student Burnout as a Function of Personality, Social Support, and Workload. J. Coll. Stud. Dev. 2003, 44, 291–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Law, D.W. A Measure of Burnout for Business Students. J. Educ. Bus. 2010, 85, 195–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Law, K.S.; Wong, C.-S.; Huang, G.-H.; Li, X. The Effects of Emotional Intelligence on Job Performance and Life Satisfaction for the Research and Development Scientists in China. Asia Pac. J. Manag. 2008, 25, 51–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maslach, C.; Leiter, M.P. Early Predictors of Job Burnout and Engagement. J. Appl. Psychol. 2008, 93, 498–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sweeney, J.T.; Summers, S.L. The Effect of the Busy Season Workload on Public Accountants’ Job Burnout. Behav. Res. Account. 2002, 14, 223–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernández-Castillo, A. State-Anxiety and Academic Burnout Regarding University Access Selective Examinations in Spain during and after the COVID-19 Lockdown. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 621863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marôco, J.; Campos, J.A.D.B. Defining the Student Burnout Construct: A Structural Analysis from Three Burnout Inventories. Psychol. Rep. 2012, 111, 814–830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kristensen, T.S.; Borritz, M.; Villadsen, E.; Christensen, K.B. The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A New Tool for the Assessment of Burnout. Work. Stress 2005, 19, 192–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Demerouti, E.; Bakker, A.B.; Vardakou, I.; Kantas, A. The Convergent Validity of Two Burnout Instruments: A Multitrait-Multimethod Analysis. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 2003, 19, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Portoghese, I.; Leiter, M.P.; Maslach, C.; Galletta, M.; Porru, F.; D’Aloja, E.; Finco, G.; Campagna, M. Measuring Burnout among University Students: Factorial Validity, Invariance, and Latent Profiles of the Italian Version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory Student Survey (MBI-SS). Front. Psychol. 2018, 9, 2105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Madigan, D.J.; Curran, T. Does Burnout Affect Academic Achievement? A Meta-Analysis of over 100,000 Students. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2021, 33, 387–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chaturvedi, K.; Vishwakarma, D.K.; Singh, N. COVID-19 And Its Impact on Education, Social Life and Mental Health of Students: A Survey. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 2021, 121, 105866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cullen, W.; Gulati, G.; Kelly, B.D. Mental Health in the COVID-19 Pandemic. QJM. 2020, 113, 311–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Savage, M.J.; James, R.; Magistro, D.; Donaldson, J.; Healy, L.C.; Nevill, M.; Hennis, P.J. Mental Health and Movement Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic in UK University Students: Prospective Cohort Study. Ment. Health Phys. Act. 2020, 19, 100357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gundogan, S. The Relationship of COVID-19 Student Stress with School Burnout, Depression and Subjective Well-Being: Adaptation of the COVID-19 Student Stress Scale into Turkish. Asia-Pac. Edu. Res. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tomaszek, K.; Muchacka-Cymerman, A. Student Burnout and PTSD Symptoms: The Role of Existential Anxiety and Academic Fears on Students during the COVID 19 Pandemic. Depress Res Treat. 2022, 2022, 6979310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salmela-Aro, K.; Upadyaya, K.; Ronkainen, I.; Hietajärvi, L. Study Burnout and Engagement during COVID-19 among University Students: The Role of Demands, Resources, and Psycho-Logical Needs. J. Happiness Stud. 2022, 23, 2685–2702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandura, A. Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychol. Rev. 1977, 84, 191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schunk, D.H. Modeling and Attributional Effects on Children’s Achievement: A Self Efficacy Analysis. J. Educ. Psychol. 1981, 73, 93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandura, A.; Watts, R.E. Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies. J. Cogn. Psychother. 1996, 10, 313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Multon, K.D.; Brown, S.D.; Lent, R.W. Relation of Self-Efficacy Beliefs to Academic Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Investigation. J. Couns. Psychol. 1991, 38, 30–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schwarzer, R.; Jerusalem, M. Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. In Measures in Health Psychology: A User’s Portfolio. Causal and Control Beliefs; Weinman, J., Wright, S., Johnston, M., Eds.; nferNelson: Windsor, UK, 1995; pp. 35–37. [Google Scholar]
- Scholz, U.; Doña, B.G.; Sud, S.; Schwarzer, R. Is General Self-Efficacy a Universal Construct? Psychometric Findings from 25 Countries. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 2002, 18, 242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luszczynska, A.; Scholz, U.; Schwarzer, R. The General Self-Efficacy Scale: Multicultural Validation Studies. J. Psychol. 2005, 139, 439–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Capri, B.; Ozkendir, O.M.; Ozkurt, B.; Karakus, F. General Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Life Satisfaction and Burnout of University Students. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2012, 47, 968–973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rahmati, Z. The Study of Academic Burnout in Students with High and Low Level of Self Efficacy. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2015, 171, 49–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kupcewicz, E.; Mikla, M.; Kadučáková, H.; Grochans, E.; Wieder-Huszla, S.; Jurczak, A. Self-Efficacy and Fatigue Perceived by Nursing Students in Poland, Spain and Slovakia during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2022, 26, 3771–3786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Camfield, E.K.; Schiller, N.R.; Land, K.M. Nipped in the Bud: COVID-19 Reveals the Malleability of STEM Student Self-Efficacy. CBE Life Sci. Educ. 2021, 20, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saefudin, W.; Sriwiyanti, S.; Yusoff, S.H.M. Role of Social Support toward Student Academic Self-Efficacy in Online Learning during Pandemic. J. Tatsqif 2021, 19, 133–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Connor, K.M.; Davidson, J.R. Development of a New Resilience Scale: The Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depress. Anxiety 2003, 18, 76–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Funder, D.C.; Ozer, D.J. Evaluating Effect Size in Psychological Research: Sense and Nonsense. Adv. Methods Pract. Psychol. Sci. 2019, 2, 156–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. 2022. Available online: https://covid19.who.int (accessed on 1 September 2022).
- Turhan, D.; Schnettler, T.; Scheunemann, A.; Gadosey, C.K.; Kegel, L.S.; Bäulke, L.; Thies, D.O.; Thomas, L.; Buhlmann, U.; Dresel, M.; et al. University Students’ Profiles of Burnout Symptoms amid the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany and Their Relation to Concurrent Study Behavior and Experiences. Int J Educ Res. 2022, 116, 102081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El Mouedden, I.; Hellemans, C.; Anthierens, S.; Michels, N.R.; DeSmet, A. Experiences of Academic and Professional Burn-Out in Medical Students and Residents during First COVID-19 Lockdown in Belgium: A Mixed-Method Survey. BMC Med Educ. 2022, 22, 631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mäkikangas, A.; Kinnunen, U. The Person-Oriented Approach to Burnout: A Systematic Review. Burn. Res. 2016, 3, 11–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Leiter, M.P.; Maslach, C. Latent Burnout Profiles: A New Approach to Understanding the Burnout Experience. Burn. Res. 2016, 3, 89–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Karma, I.G.M.; Darma, I.K.; Santiana, I.M.A. Blended Learning Is an Educational Innovation and Solution during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. Res. J. Eng. IT Sci. Res. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benito, Á.; Dogan Yenisey, K.; Khanna, K.; Masis, M.F.; Monge, R.M.; Tugtan, M.A.; Vega Araya, L.D.; Vig, R. Changes That Should Remain in Higher Education Post COVID-19: A Mixed-Methods Analysis of the Experiences at Three Universities. High. Learn. Res. Commun. 2021, 11, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Q.; Li, Z.; Han, J. A Hybrid Learning Pedagogy for Surmounting the Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Performing Arts Education. Educ Inf Technol. 2021, 26, 7635–7655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Singh, J.; Steele, K.; Singh, L. Combining the Best of Online and Face-to-Face Learning: Hybrid and Blended Learning Approach for COVID-19, Post Vaccine, Post-Pandemic World. J. Educ. Technol. Syst. 2021, 50, 140–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Savicć, D. COVID-19 and Work from Home: Digital Transformation of the Workforce. Grey J. 2020, 16, 101–104. [Google Scholar]
- Chung, H.; Seo, H.; Forbes, S.; Birkett, H. Working from Home during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Changing Preferences and the Future of Work. 2020. Available online: https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-social-sciences/business/research/wirc/epp-working-from-home-COVID-19-lockdown.pdf (accessed on 1 September 2022).
- Strielkowski, W. COVID-19 Pandemic and the Digital Revolution in Academia and Higher Education. Preprints 2020, 2020040290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zawacki-Richter, O. The Current State and Impact of COVID-19 on Digital Higher Education in Germany. Hum. Behav. Emerg. Technol. 2021, 3, 218–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martin, A.J.; Nejad, H.G.; Colmar, S.; Liem, G.A.D. Adaptability: How Students’ Responses to Uncertainty and Novelty Predict Their Academic and Non-academic Outcomes. J. Educ. Psychol. 2013, 105, 728–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Beginning of the Semester (BOS) | End of the Semester (EOS) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Excluded Questions | Overall Cronbach’s α | Excluded Questions | Overall Cronbach’s α | |
Burnout (BUR) | 2, 5 | 0.677 | 2, 5 | 0.732 |
Resiliency (RES) | - | 0.784 | - | 0.81 |
General Efficacy (GSE) | - | 0.823 | - | 0.799 |
Online Education (OED) | 7 | 0.676 | 7 | 0.659 |
COVID–19 Response (COV) | 2, 3 | 0.698 | 2, 3 | 0.69 |
Home Environment (HME) (USM) | 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 | 0.69 | 2, 8, 9, 11 | 0.903 |
Hybrid Learning (HYB) | 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12 | 0.892 | - | - |
Variables | Fall 2021 BOS Burnout | Fall 2021 EOS Burnout | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
r | p-Value | r | p-Value | |
Age | −0.136 | 0.173 | −0.192 | 0.062 |
Self-Efficacy | −0.320 | p = 0.001 | −0.128 | p = 0.211 |
Resiliency | −0.392 | p ≤ 0.001 | −0.128 | p = 0.051 |
Home Environment + | −0.288 | p = 0.003 | - | - |
University Self-Management | - | - | −0.302 | p = 0.003 |
Hybrid Preference | −0.206 | p = 0.038 | 0.123 | p = 0.23 |
Remote Learning Sentiment | −0.209 | p = 0.035 | 0.424 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Online Learning Preference | −0.178 | p = 0.074 | 0.399 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Technical Support | −0.157 | 0.114 | −0.365 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Variables | Fall 2021 BOS Technical | Fall 2021 EOS Technical | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
r | p-Value | r | p-Value | |
Age | 0.045 | p = 0.65 | 0.121 | 0.241 |
Home Environment + | 0.327 | p ≤ 0.001 | - | - |
University Self-Management | - | - | 0.439 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Hybrid Learning Preference | 0.219 | p = 0.027 | 0.078 | p = 0.446 |
Remote Learning Sentiment | 0.347 | p ≤ 0.001 | −0.399 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Online Learning Preference | 0.289 | p = 0.003 | −0.293 | p ≤ 0.004 |
Variables | BOS Home Environment + | |
---|---|---|
r | p-Value | |
Age | 0.359 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Remote Learning Sentiment | 0.581 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Online Learning Preference | 0.566 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Hybrid Learning Preference | 0.244 | p = 0.014 |
Variables | EOS University Self-Management | |
---|---|---|
r | p-Value | |
Age | 0.021 | p = 0.842 |
Remote Learning Sentiment | −0.513 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Online Learning Preference | −0.658 | p ≤ 0.001 |
Hybrid Learning Preference | −0.046 | p = 0.654 |
Variables | BOS M1 (R² = 0.023) | BOS M2 (R² = 0.107) | BOS M3 (R² = 0.149) | BOS M4 (R² = 0.179) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | −0.047 ns | 0.034 ns | 0.043 ns | 0.109 ns |
Gender (Female) | 0.234 ns | 0.177 ns | 0.149 ns | 0.146 ns |
Self-Efficacy | −0.303 ** | −0.303 ** | −0.293 ** | |
Remote Sentiment | −0.206 * | −0.085 ns | ||
Home Sentiment | −0.224 T |
EOS M1 (R² = 0.026) | EOS M2 (R² = 0.037) | EOS M3 (R² = 0.162) | EOS M4 (R² = 0.22) | EOS M5 (R² = 0.293) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | −0.156 ns | −0.109 ns | −0.091 ns | −0.117 ns | −0.146 ns |
Gender (Female) | 0.091 ns | 0.056 ns | 0.056 ns | 0.046 ns | 0.044 ns |
Self-Efficacy | −0.117 ns | −0.085 ns | 0.011 ns | −0.013 ns | |
Uni Self Manage | −0.356 *** | −0.211 * | −0.054 ns | ||
Technical Sentiment | −0.299 ** | −0.228 * | |||
Remote Sentiment | 0.336 ** |
Direct Burnout Effects | Indirect Burnout Effects | Total Effects | |
---|---|---|---|
BOS Remote Sentiment | β = −0.076 ns | - | - |
BOS Self-Efficacy | ββ = −0.431 *** | - | - |
BOS Remote Sentiment Home Environment Mediation | - | β = −0.09 ** | β = −0.166 ** |
BOS Self-Efficacy Home Environment Mediation | - | β = −0.015ns ** | ββ = −0.446 *** |
EOS University Self-Management | ββ = −0.174 ** | - | - |
EOS University Self-Management Remote Sentiment Mediation | - | ββ = −0.151 *** | ββ = −0.325 *** |
Spring 2021 | Fall 2021 | |
---|---|---|
Entirely Online | 66 | 1 |
Hybrid Learning | 24 | 49 |
Entirely in the Classroom | 4 | 45 |
Internships | 3 | 2 |
Total | 97 | 97 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Jackson, K.M.; Konczosné Szombathelyi, M. Student Burnout in Higher Education: From Lockdowns to Classrooms. Educ. Sci. 2022, 12, 842. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120842
Jackson KM, Konczosné Szombathelyi M. Student Burnout in Higher Education: From Lockdowns to Classrooms. Education Sciences. 2022; 12(12):842. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120842
Chicago/Turabian StyleJackson, Kevin Michael, and Márta Konczosné Szombathelyi. 2022. "Student Burnout in Higher Education: From Lockdowns to Classrooms" Education Sciences 12, no. 12: 842. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120842
APA StyleJackson, K. M., & Konczosné Szombathelyi, M. (2022). Student Burnout in Higher Education: From Lockdowns to Classrooms. Education Sciences, 12(12), 842. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120842