Syntactic Variation and Sociocultural Identity in Southeast Asian Englishes: A Study of Subjectless Nonfinite Clauses in Philippine and Singaporean English

Abstract

This study explores syntactic variation and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses within Philippine English (PhE) and Singaporean English (SgE), focusing on to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions. Using data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), it examines the distribution of these constructions across spoken and written registers to uncover their sociocultural underpinnings. The findings reveal a shared preference for to-infinitive constructions in both varieties, reflecting their role in expressing intention and purpose. PhE’s adherence to prescriptive norms stems from colonial history and formal education, while SgE’s multilingual and pragmatic linguistic ecology fosters greater syntactic flexibility, exemplified by the innovative want + -ing construction absent in PhE. Although gerunds are less frequent overall, they consistently occur with verbs like enjoy in both varieties, signaling habitual or ongoing actions. Sociolinguistic distinctions also emerge in constructions like [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause, where PhE employs elaborative commentary aligned with its expressive narrative tendencies, contrasting with SgE’s concise, context-driven usage. By investigating this underexplored syntactic phenomenon, the study demonstrates how localized Englishes adapt grammatical structures to reflect sociocultural priorities, advancing the understanding of World Englishes and their sociolinguistic diversity.

1. Introduction

The emergence of Southeast Asian Englishes, such as Philippine English (hereafter, PhE) and Singapore English (hereafter, SgE), highlights the dynamic relationship between global linguistic norms and local sociocultural practices. These varieties, shaped by colonial histories, multilingual ecologies, and unique communicative norms, offer valuable insights into how grammar functions as a tool for identity construction and discourse. As Le Page and Tabouret-Keller (1985) argue, language may serve as a subconscious tool to create or express one’s identity, making syntactic choices a potential reflection of sociocultural affiliations and motivations. In particular, the use of syntactic structures provides insights into how cultural values, communicative norms, and multilingual interactions shape language use. Despite the growing body of research on phonological and lexical features in these Englishes, their syntactic dimensions, particularly verb complementation, remain underexplored. This study examines how syntactic choices in verb complementation specifically monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses reflect sociocultural identity and discourse strategies in localized Englishes. By addressing this underexplored syntactic feature, the research contributes to the discourse on how Southeast Asian Englishes express evolving cultural and communicative priorities.

1.1. Verb Complementation

Verb complementation, a foundational aspect of English grammar, governs the patterns through which verbs select their complements. Carter and McCarthy (2006) identify four primary types, namely monotransitive (verb + direct object), ditransitive (verb + indirect object + direct object), complex transitive (verb + direct object + complement), and copular (verb + subject complement). For instance, a monotransitive construction like (1) structurally differs from a ditransitive one, such as (2).

(1)	She caught a fish differs.
(2)	He gave her a gift.

Quirk et al. (1985) echo these classifications, while Biber et al. (1999) extend them to include intransitive complementation. These distinctions underscore the diversity of verb-complement relationships and set the stage for examining more specific constructions, such as monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses.

Among the types of verb complementation, monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses represent a unique syntactic phenomenon. In these constructions, a nonfinite clause serves as the direct object of the verb, with the implied subject of the nonfinite clause being identical to that of the matrix verb. For example, in (3), the -ing gerund clause learning English functions as the direct object, emphasizing actuality, while in (4), the to-infinitive clause to learn English suggests potentiality (Quirk et al., 1985).

(3)	She enjoys learning English.
(4)	She wants to learn English.

The choice between gerund and infinitive complements is influenced by semantic and pragmatic factors, such as factivity, volition, and temporal reference, making these constructions an important area of study.

Gerund vs. To-Infinitive

The gerund and to-infinitive forms differ significantly in their semantic and pragmatic functions. One key factor is factivity, which involves the presupposition of truth in the complement. Factive verbs, such as regret and admit, are complemented by gerunds or that-clauses because they assert the truth of the action, as in (5). In contrast, non-factive verbs like hope and want, which imply potentiality or assumption, align with infinitives, as in (6) (Kirby, 1987).

(5)	He regretted paying the bill.
(6)	He hoped to visit China.

Another critical factor is actuality, where gerunds are closely tied to actions or events that are actualized, while infinitives denote potential or anticipated actions. For instance, (7) expresses an actual activity, whereas (8) refers to a potential event. Gerunds are commonly selected by action verbs such as enjoy and avoid, whereas infinitives are typical of verbs like hope and wish that express intention or potentiality (Quirk et al., 1985).

(7)	We enjoy reading books.
(8)	We expect to arrive at 6 pm.

Communication verbs provide additional insights into complement selection. These verbs, often used in indirect speech, include say, declare, and report and typically co-occur with that-clauses, resisting factive insertions. However, a subset of these verbs, such as admit and deny, can take gerund complements when the action has a clear past tense reference. For example, (9) demonstrates how the gerund aligns with the factual and retrospective nature of the action.

(9)	He admitted raising the matter.

The dimension of time and tense further influences complement choice. Gerunds often denote past or completed actions, as seen in (10), while infinitives suggest future-oriented actions, as in (11). This temporal distinction highlights how tense and aspect overlap with factive features since past actions are inherently factual. The choice between gerund and infinitive is also shaped by whether the action is durative or momentary.

(10)	He stopped smoking.
(11)	He stopped to smoke.

Finally, volitional verbs like want, wish, and refuse offer a unique perspective on complement selection as seen in the examples below from Kirby (1987) and Magpale and Ferrer (2015, p. 105). These verbs are associated with the onset of an action, making them more compatible with infinitives, as in (12). However, when the reference shifts to the entirety of an action, gerunds are preferred, as in (13). These patterns underscore how volitionality intersects with the semantic and syntactic roles of complements.

(12)	She refused to sign the contract.
(13)	She avoided signing the contract.

1.2. Verb Complementation Across Varieties

The field of corpus linguistics has greatly expanded the study of verb complementation by providing empirical data rooted in authentic language use. Unlike traditional descriptive grammars, which often relied on constructed examples, corpus-based research enables a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of grammatical patterns as they occur in natural contexts. This approach builds on the foundation of earlier descriptive methods, enriching their insights with real-world evidence and revealing how complementation patterns are influenced by sociolinguistic, cognitive, and historical factors.

1.2.1. Theoretical Models: Structural Nativization and the Complexity Principle

The study of verbal complementation in English varieties is often framed within two key theoretical models: structural nativization (Schneider, 2007) and the Complexity Principle (Rohdenburg, 1996, 2006). Firstly, Schneider’s (2007) Dynamic Model of postcolonial Englishes explains how contact-induced variation leads to the development of distinctive grammatical norms in localized varieties. Structural nativization describes how postcolonial Englishes develop their own grammatical rules, particularly in areas such as verb complementation, under the influence of substrate languages and local communicative needs. According to Schneider, complementation patterns in World Englishes reflect the interplay between colonial inheritance and local adaptation. For example, the tendency for PhE to prefer finite that-clauses over non-finite complements can be linked to Tagalog syntax, which favors explicit clause boundaries. Similarly, substrate influence from Malay and Chinese explains the flexibility observed in SgE’s use of gerunds and to-infinitives in spoken contexts.

Secondly, Rohdenburg’s Complexity Principle (Rohdenburg, 1996, 2006) states that cognitively complex environments favor more explicit grammatical structures. When cognitive processing demands increase (e.g., due to negation or complex embedding), speakers tend to select finite complements over non-finite ones to reduce ambiguity. This principle helps explain why SgE and other L2 varieties show a higher frequency of explicit complement structures, such as finite clauses and object + to-infinitive constructions. Romasanta (2017) found that World Englishes (WEs), including Indian and Nigerian English, tend to favor finite complements under cognitively demanding conditions, consistent with the Complexity Principle.

The interaction between structural nativization and cognitive processing constraints creates distinctive patterns of verb complementation in PhE and SgE. In PhE, adherence to colonial-era grammatical norms and the influence of Tagalog syntax reinforce the preference for finite complements, reflecting a more conservative grammatical profile. In SgE, the influence of substrate languages, such as Mandarin and Malay, encourages greater flexibility with non-finite complements, especially in contexts that prioritize communicative efficiency and pragmatic clarity.

1.2.2. Empirical Studies on Verb Complementation

Verbal complementation, which refers to the patterns in which verbs take different types of complement clauses, has been extensively studied in WEs. This research area is particularly relevant in postcolonial Englishes, where local linguistic features emerge due to language contact, second-language acquisition (SLA), and sociolinguistic factors. Various studies have explored how WEs diverge from or adhere to prescriptive norms, especially in the use of finite versus non-finite complement clauses.

Empirical studies on World Englishes (WEs) have shown that postcolonial Englishes tend to favor finite complements, reflecting an inclination toward transparency and explicitness (Romasanta, 2022). This preference is particularly strong in L2 varieties, such as Hong Kong English and Nigerian English, where cognitive processing constraints influence grammatical choices (Romasanta, 2017). García-Castro (2019) examined the complementation profile of remember in British and Indian English, finding that Indian English favors finite complements more than British English, consistent with the broader tendency among L2 varieties to prioritize explicit syntactic structures.

While some postcolonial Englishes innovate in verbal complementation, others exhibit conservatism. The phenomenon of colonial lag—a term coined by Marckwardt (1958) and later referred to as extraterritorial conservatism, a more neutral term (Hundt, 2009, p. 32)—may explain the maintenance of older structures from parent English varieties. Such patterns occur when transplanted cultures and languages preserve earlier linguistic features from their countries of origin, remaining relatively static over time. This view may explain why certain L2 varieties retain complementation structures that have become less common in Inner Circle Englishes. In particular, this conservatism is evident in Philippine English (PhE), which adheres more closely to standard norms compared to Indian or Sri Lankan English (Romasanta, 2022). For instance, PhE maintains the use of the mandative should in subjunctive clauses, a structure that has largely faded in contemporary British and American English (Peters, 2009).

However, this conservatism is challenged in L2 varieties where historical, sociocultural, and substrate influences shape structural patterns. Romasanta (2017) found that the complementation patterns in Hong Kong English (HKE), Nigerian English (NigE), and Jamaican English (JamE) reflect their respective substrate languages. In HKE, the absence of a finite vs. non-finite distinction in Cantonese may explain the low frequency of non-finite patterns. In NigE, the influence of French and native Nigerian languages—which primarily use that-clauses and infinitives but lack gerunds—likely accounts for the rarity of gerunds. In contrast, while Jamaican Creole also lacks gerunds, JamE exhibits a relatively high frequency of non-finite forms, suggesting that it has evolved beyond early substrate influence and integrated more complex complement structures. These patterns highlight how structural choices in WEs are shaped not only by colonial inheritance but also by dynamic sociolinguistic ecologies and communicative priorities.

1.3. Corpus-Based Approaches to Verb Complementation in English Varieties

Corpus-based research has greatly expanded the study of verb complementation by providing empirical data rooted in authentic language use. While earlier descriptive grammars, such as those informed by the Corpus of Late Modern English Texts (CLMET) (De Smet, 2005) and the Cambridge Grammar of English (CGE) (Carter & McCarthy, 2006), laid the groundwork for understanding grammatical patterns, more recent corpora like the International Corpus of English (ICE) offer richer comparative insights. In particular, ICE-PHI (for Philippine English) and ICE-SIN (for Singapore English) enable detailed analysis of syntactic variation across these two Southeast Asian varieties.

The CLMET, which covers the period from 1710 to 1920, offers valuable historical insights into the development of complementation patterns in British English. It provides a diachronic perspective, tracing how these structures have evolved over time. The CGE, on the other hand, offers a synchronic overview of spoken and written English, presenting comprehensive data on how verb complementation functions in modern usage. While these resources provide important background and comparative frameworks, they are limited in their applicability to localized English varieties shaped by complex sociolinguistic and multilingual contexts. This is where the ICE corpora, particularly ICE-PHI and ICE-SIN, play a crucial role by providing authentic, region-specific data that reflect real-world usage patterns in Southeast Asia.

1.3.1. International Corpus of English (ICE)

Building on the insights from corpus-based research on complementation patterns in World Englishes, the International Corpus of English (ICE) provides a robust framework for analyzing verb complementation in localized Englishes. The ICE project includes parallel corpora from various English-speaking regions, allowing for systematic comparisons across varieties. In particular, ICE-PHI (for Philippine English) and ICE-SIN (for Singapore English) offer balanced collections of spoken and written texts, enabling comparative analyses of grammatical features. These corpora make it possible to examine how complementation patterns are shaped by sociolinguistic and historical factors in Southeast Asian Englishes.

Studies leveraging ICE data reveal notable differences between PhE and SgE. For instance, PhE shows a preference for to-infinitives, influenced by educational norms and cultural emphasis on explicitness, while SgE demonstrates a more balanced use of gerunds and infinitives, shaped by its British English heritage and multilingual environment (Borlongan, 2013; Platt et al., 1983). The availability of structured data from ICE-PHI and ICE-SIN allows for a detailed exploration of how grammatical patterns reflect underlying sociocultural norms and communicative practices.

1.3.2. Studies Using ICE-PH and ICE-SIN

The International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN) have been instrumental in analyzing how localized English varieties reflect sociocultural and linguistic influences. Each corpus contains one million words of spoken and written English, providing a balanced representation of diverse discourse types—such as academic writing, conversation, broadcast interviews, and public speeches—allowing for in-depth investigations into grammatical features in authentic contexts.

Scholarly interest in the development of English varieties in Asia (e.g., Bautista, 1991; Kachru, 1986; Svalberg, 1998) has expanded in recent decades, employing diverse methodologies to explore how sociocultural identities influence language. The shift from purely structural analyses to a sociolinguistic corpus-based approach has deepened our understanding of how localized Englishes, such as PhE and SgE, reflect speakers’ cultural and linguistic norms.

Research on PhE has established its legitimacy and distinctiveness as a variety of English, beginning with Llamzon’s (1969) foundational work, Standard Filipino English, which identified standardization as a significant area of inquiry. Since the creation of ICE-PHI, numerous corpus-based studies have examined PhE grammar (e.g., Bautista, 2000; Borlongan, 2013; L. E. Gustilo, 2011), phonology (Berowa, 2023; Magpale, 2024), intelligibility (e.g., Dayag, 2007; L. Gustilo et al., 2019), and attitudes (Gustilo & Dimaculangan, 2018). These studies have shown how features once deemed deviations have evolved into legitimate variations, underscoring the dynamic nature of PhE.

Research on SgE has similarly explored its evolution as a multilingual variety shaped by British English and its local linguistic environment. Platt et al. (1983) highlighted how multilingualism informs its syntax, while Peters (2009) found parallels between PhE and SgE in their frequent use of mandative subjunctives, a divergence from British norms. Hundt (2006) argued that SgE’s grammatical patterns reflect a balance between historical influences and local adaptations, emphasizing the flexibility inherent in its multilingual ecology.

Comparative studies using ICE-PHI and ICE-SIN reveal both shared and unique features of these varieties. Gonzales and Dita (2018) proposed that Outer Circle English speakers, including those of PhE and SgE, are often driven by two motivations: identity formation (where they distinguish themselves from Inner Circle varieties) and substratum influence (where local languages shape grammatical choices). Nelson (2005) attributed the high frequency of modal verbs in PhE to stylistic preferences associated with culturally embedded norms of politeness and deference. Hundt (2006) noted that while PhE aligns with American English at the lexicogrammatical level, substrate influence is less evident than in other Outer Circle varieties.

The current study builds on this growing body of research, leveraging ICE-PHI and ICE-SIN to analyze how monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses reflect sociocultural norms and communicative practices. By focusing on the syntactic and functional dimensions of these constructions, the study aims to uncover how grammar is shaped by multilingual ecologies and cultural identities in Southeast Asian Englishes.

1.4. Research Gap

Despite increasing scholarly attention to Southeast Asian Englishes, significant gaps persist in the syntactic analysis of these varieties, particularly in the domain of monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses. While much research on PhE and SgE has focused on broader patterns of verb complementation, the intricate interplay between semantic factors and sociocultural influences on gerund and infinitive selection remains underexplored. Existing studies have highlighted the legitimacy and distinctiveness of PhE and SgE as localized Englishes (e.g., Bautista, 2000; Borlongan, 2013; Peters, 2009), but limited attention has been given to how these syntactic choices reflect deeper sociocultural motivations, such as identity formation and adaptation to multilingual ecologies.

Comparative analyses of PhE and SgE also remain underdeveloped, particularly concerning how these varieties align or diverge in their historical and sociocultural connections to Inner Circle Englishes. While prior work (e.g., Hundt, 2006; Peters, 2009) has identified shared features, such as the frequent use of mandative subjunctives, the implications of these similarities for identity construction and substrate influence have not been thoroughly examined. Additionally, the contrasting syntactic preferences in PhE and SgE—marked by PhE’s prescriptive adherence to grammatical norms versus SgE’s pragmatic and multilingual flexibility—call for a deeper investigation into how linguistic ecologies, and communicative needs shape these patterns.

This gap is particularly salient given the theoretical and sociolinguistic significance of monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses as a site where syntax, semantics, and sociocultural identity converge. Addressing this gap contributes to the understanding of how localized Englishes adapt grammar to reflect cultural priorities, multilingual ecologies, and evolving identities. Furthermore, examining this phenomenon has practical implications for language teaching, policymaking, and cross-cultural communication in Southeast Asia, where the recognition of localized norms can foster inclusivity and linguistic equity.

By uncovering the sociocultural dimensions of syntactic variation, this study aligns with the themes of this special issue, which seeks to explore how discourse and identity are represented in the diverse and evolving varieties of Southeast Asian Englishes. Through its focus on the grammatical adaptation of PhE and SgE, this research highlights how English in Southeast Asia serves as a dynamic medium for cultural expression and identity construction.

1.5. Current Study

This study explores monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses in PhE nand SgE, emphasizing their frequency, structural preferences, and sociocultural dimensions. By leveraging data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), it seeks to answer the following questions:

(a)

What are the prevalent patterns of to-infinitive and gerund use in PhE and SgE?

(b)

How do these patterns reflect the semantic and pragmatic dimensions of verb complementation?

(c)

What sociocultural factors underpin these patterns?

By addressing these questions, the study highlights the dynamic relationship between grammar and sociocultural identity in localized English varieties. The findings aim to contribute to linguistic theory by advancing our understanding of how verb complementation evolves and adapts within multilingual ecologies. Furthermore, the research underscores the importance of examining English not as a monolithic entity but as a language shaped by diverse sociolinguistic and cultural contexts. By documenting and analyzing these constructions, the study provides valuable insights into the processes of grammatical variation and innovation in Southeast Asian Englishes, enriching the broader discourse on world Englishes and their role in shaping global linguistic diversity.

2. Materials and Methods

This study adopts a corpus-based approach to examine the frequency, structural preferences, and sociocultural dimensions of monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses in PhE and SgE. Utilizing data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), the methodology ensures a systematic and empirically grounded analysis of these syntactic constructions.

2.1. Research Design

A corpus-based descriptive design was selected to provide empirical evidence of syntactic variation in naturally occurring language. This method is particularly suited for analyzing Southeast Asian Englishes, where syntactic patterns are shaped by multilingual ecologies and sociocultural influences. This approach facilitates the identification of patterns and variations in the use of to-infinitives and gerunds across PhE and SgE. The study focuses on both spoken and written registers, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of how these constructions are used in different communicative contexts.

2.2. Data Source

The primary data sources for this study are ICE-PHI (International Corpus of English—Philippines) and ICE-SIN (International Corpus of English—Singapore). ICE-PHI contains approximately 1,139,435 words, with around 687,239 words in the spoken component and 452,196 words in the written component. ICE-SIN comprises approximately 1,118,186 words, with 681,879 words in the spoken component and 436,307 words in the written component. This study uses the first release of both ICE-PHI and ICE-SIN, which have been widely used in comparative research on Southeast Asian Englishes. Both corpora are divided into categories such as private conversations, public dialogs, academic writing, and creative writing, ensuring a diverse representation of language use across different discourse types.

2.3. Data Extraction

The data extraction process was carried out using AntConc Version 3.5.8 (Anthony, 2019), a widely used corpus analysis tool known for its accuracy and flexibility in handling large linguistic datasets. Based on Quirk et al. (1985), verbs commonly associated with both gerund and to-infinitive complements (e.g., want, like, try, enjoy) were identified as search terms to locate monotransitive subjectless nonfinite clauses in the corpora. Concordance searches were conducted separately for spoken and written registers to capture register-based differences.

Each extracted instance was manually examined to ensure that the complement clause functioned as a direct object and that the implied subject of the nonfinite clause aligned with the matrix subject. Noise and false positives (e.g., subordinate clauses or elliptical constructions) were manually removed to improve accuracy. After verification, the instances were categorized into to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions. Additional structural and semantic features, such as register (spoken vs. written), presence of negation, modal auxiliaries, and semantic roles (e.g., actuality, potentiality), were also recorded to provide a richer analysis of linguistic variation. The frequency of each construction was then computed for both PhE and SgE across spoken and written registers.

2.4. Analytical Framework

The study employed a mixed-methods analytical framework, combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. The structural analysis focused on the frequency and distribution of to-infinitive and -ing gerund complements, as well as register-based differences between spoken and written language. Cross-tabulations were performed to explore variation across verb types and register.

The contextual analysis examined the sociolinguistic motivations behind these patterns, including the semantic roles of the complements (e.g., actuality vs. potentiality) and the influence of sociocultural factors on verb complementation choices in multilingual settings. This integrated approach ensures that both linguistic structures and sociolinguistic factors are accounted for when interpreting the data.

2.5. Reliability and Validity

To ensure reliability, multiple independent searches were conducted to confirm the consistency of extracted data. The validity of the findings was enhanced by triangulating results with existing research on PhE and SgE verb complementation. Manual verification of concordance lines ensured the accuracy of classification and contextual interpretation.

2.6. Statistical Methods and Normalization

To validate the observed patterns, the study employed a two-step statistical analysis. Frequency counts were normalized to account for differences in corpus size using the following formula:

$$NormalizedFrequency={\displaystyle \frac{RawFrequency}{TotalTokens}}\times 10,000$$

For example, the verb want occurred 867 times in the spoken data of ICE-PHI, which contains 687,239 tokens. The normalized frequency was computed as follows:

$${\displaystyle \frac{867}{687,239}}\times 10,000=12.615698$$

Both raw and normalized frequencies were computed to enable direct comparison across registers and verb types. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to test the significance of differences in the use of to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions across registers and verb types. The analysis considered both main effects (e.g., differences between registers) and interaction effects (e.g., verb type × register interaction), with a significance threshold of p < 0.05. The effect size was measured using partial eta squared (η²) to assess the proportion of variance explained by the main effects and interaction. Following Cohen (1988), η² values were interpreted as small (0.01), moderate (0.06), and large (0.14), allowing for a more precise evaluation of the strength of the observed patterns.

2.7. Limitations

While ICE-PHI and ICE-SIN offer balanced and representative data, their design may not fully capture emergent discourse genres, particularly those shaped by digital communication. This limitation may affect the generalizability of findings to other contexts of English use in the Philippines and Singapore. Additionally, although frequency data have been normalized to account for differences in corpus size, variations in the distribution of text types across spoken and written components may still influence the results. Future research could refine these comparisons by analyzing specific subcategories of texts to better identify discourse-related syntactic patterns. Expanding the dataset to include additional corpora or elicited speech data would provide a more comprehensive understanding of syntactic variation in verb complementation.

3. Results

This section presents the key findings from the analysis of to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions in PhE and SgE, based on the ICE-PHI and ICE-SIN corpora. The findings are structured into two main subsections, namely (1) distribution across spoken and written registers, and (2) verb-specific trends. Statistical analyses and tables provide empirical support for the patterns described.

3.1. Distribution Cross Registers

The analysis reveals a shared preference for to-infinitive constructions in both PhE and SgE, but with differing degrees of gerund usage flexibility, particularly in SgE. Spoken registers demonstrate higher overall frequencies of both constructions, emphasizing their role in expressing intention, purpose, and descriptive actions. The normalized values provide a clearer picture of the relative strength of these patterns, allowing for direct comparison across varieties and registers.

3.1.1. Philippine English (PhE)

In PhE, to-infinitive constructions dominate across spoken and written registers, reflecting their alignment with prescriptive grammatical norms from British and American English educational models introduced during the American colonial period. These norms emphasize explicitness and clarity by encouraging structures that clearly mark intention and future actions. Consistent with the Cambridge Grammar of English (Carter & McCarthy, 2006), to-infinitives are preferred for expressing purpose and goal-oriented actions, contributing to communicative clarity. De Smet (2005) similarly notes that the preference for to-infinitives in formal English dates back to Late Modern English, where they were favored for precision and clear articulation of purpose.

To-infinitives are particularly prevalent in spoken contexts. The verb want occurs 867 times in spoken contexts, corresponding to a normalized frequency of 12.62 per 10,000 tokens, compared to 154 instances in written registers (normalized frequency of 3.41). This dominance suggests a strong reliance on to-infinitives in conversational discourse, where they facilitate the explicit expression of intentions and goals. For example:

(14)	PhE: So </[> </{> we want to be like others like the foreigners we think that it’s more prestigious. (ICE-PHI:S1A-022#135:1:B)

Written contexts exhibit a reduced but still significant frequency of to-infinitive constructions, reflecting their role in encoding purpose and goal-directed actions in structured discourse. For instance, need appears 278 times in spoken registers (normalized 4.05) and 99 times in written registers (normalized 2.19). These patterns suggest that to-infinitives are preferred when expressing intentionality and purpose in more structured communicative contexts, as shown in the following example:

(15)	PhE; My sister wants to go before they turn red. (ICE-PHI:W1B-005#18:1)1

Gerund constructions are relatively infrequent in PhE, with verbs such as need and love showing minimal occurrences (raw counts of 8 and 32, respectively). The normalized frequency for love with gerunds is 0.47 in spoken contexts and 0.02 in written contexts. The verb enjoy is an exception, consistently selecting gerunds across both spoken and written contexts. For instance, enjoy occurs 8 times in spoken contexts (normalized 0.12) and 10 times in written contexts (normalized 0.22), indicating that gerunds are primarily reserved for habitual or descriptive actions, with limited integration into PhE’s broader syntactic repertoire:

(16)	PhE: And I think I’ll enjoy teaching my classes. (ICE-PHI:W1B-007#43:1)

Table 1. Updated Distribution of To-Infinitive and -ing Gerund Constructions in Philippine English (based on (Magpale & Ferrer, 2015)), with Raw and Normalized Values.

	to-Infinitve (Spoken)		to-Infinitve (Written)		ing-Gerund (Spoken)		ing-Gerund (Written)
Verb	Raw	Normalized	Raw	Normalized	Raw	Normalized	Raw	Normalized
want	867	12.62	154	3.41	0	0	0	0
need/s/ed	278	4.05	99	2.19	0	0	8	0.18
like/s/ed	546	7.94	87	1.92	130	1.89	1	0.02
try/ies/ed	298	4.34	54	1.19	24	0.35	2	0.04
love/s	75	1.09	7	0.15	32	0.47	1	0.02
hope/s/ed	14	0.20	20	0.44	0	0	0	0.0
wish/s/ed	15	0.22	15	0.33	0	0	0	0.0
enjoy/s	0	0	0	0	8	0.12	10	0.22

summarizes the distribution of to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions in PhE. The raw values are from Magpale and Ferrer (2015), who did not provide normalized values. The current study calculated the normalized values to enable more precise cross-register and cross-variety comparisons.

3.1.2. Singaporean English (SgE)

In SgE, to-infinitive constructions similarly dominate, but the distribution exhibits a more balanced integration of gerunds, particularly in spoken contexts. This pattern aligns with studies indicating that SgE speakers tend to adopt flexible syntactic structures due to multilingual exposure (Bao, 2005; Gupta, 1994). Additionally, Bao (2005) highlights how substrate languages like Mandarin and Malay contribute to the syntactic flexibility observed in SgE. The corpus data from ICE-SIN supports this claim, where verbs like try and like exhibit greater variation between gerund and to-infinitive complements in spoken registers compared to their counterparts in PhE.

Similar to PhE, to-infinitives are prevalent in both spoken and written registers. For example, want occurs 1067 times in spoken contexts (normalized 15.65) compared to 105 instances in written contexts (normalized 2.41). Verbs like need (292 instances) and try (170 instances) show comparable patterns, reinforcing the functional role of to-infinitives in expressing purpose and intention

Unlike PhE, SgE demonstrates a higher frequency of gerund constructions, particularly in conversational contexts. The verb like exhibits this variability, with 6 occurrences in spoken contexts (normalized 0.09) and 2 occurrences in written contexts (normalized 0.05). This suggests that gerunds are more pragmatically integrated into conversational discourse in SgE. For example:

(17)	SgE: So are we saying that the women like responding fairly well to this as well to this this strategy this state policy? (ICE-SIN:S1A-089#48:1:B)
(18)	SgE: I said what carry on but I like being chauvinist and somehow or rather the female friends I mix with seem to like my chauvinism. (ICE-SIN:S1B-031#93:1:C)

Similarly, the verb enjoy exclusively selects gerunds, with 11 occurrences in spoken contexts (normalized 0.16) and 6 in written contexts (normalized 0.14). These constructions emphasize habitual or descriptive actions:

(19)	SgE: Hope you enjoy reading my nonsense. (ICE-SIN:W1B-001#122:1)

Table 2. Distribution of To-Infinitive and -ing Gerund Constructions in Singaporean English, with Raw and Normalized Values.

	to-Infinitve (Spoken)		to-Infinitve (Written)		ing-Gerund (Spoken)		ing-Gerund (Written)
Verb	Raw	Normalized	Raw	Normalized	Raw	Normalized	Raw	Normalized
want	1067	15.65	105	2.41	14	0.21	1	0.02
need/s/ed	292	4.28	165	3.78	10	0.15	1	0.02
like/s/ed	267	3.92	59	1.35	6	0.09	2	0.05
try/ies/ed	170	2.49	58	1.33	8	0.12	10	0.23
love/s	12	0.18	10	0.23	6	0.09	3	0.07
hope/s/ed	33	0.48	26	0.60	0	0	0	0
wish/s/ed	16	0.23	57	1.31	0	0	0	0
enjoy/s	0	0	0	0	11	0.16	6	0.14

summarizes the distribution of to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions in SgE. The higher normalized frequency of gerunds compared to PhE highlights SgE’s greater syntactic flexibility.

3.1.3. Comparative Insights from British and American English

To determine whether the complementation patterns observed in SgE and PhE are unique or reflective of broader global trends, a comparative analysis with British and American English (BrE and AmE) is necessary. Studies on verb complementation in native varieties (Biber et al., 1999; De Smet, 2005) reveal that while to-infinitives are dominant in more structured written genres, spoken BrE and AmE exhibit some degree of gerund usage, particularly with verbs like try and like. Corpus findings from the Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus (Biber et al., 2002) indicate that AmE speakers are more likely than BrE speakers to use gerunds after like, whereas BrE speakers show a stronger preference for to-infinitives in academic and expository writing. These findings suggest that while SgE and PhE demonstrate distinct syntactic preferences, they are not entirely detached from dominant English variety trends. However, the influence of multilingualism in SgE and the prescriptive norms in PhE may amplify certain preferences beyond what is observed in BrE and AmE.

3.2. Verb-Specific Trends

The analysis of individual verbs reveals significant syntactic preferences that highlight the functional and contextual dynamics of verb complementation in both PhE and SgE.

3.2.1. Verbs Exclusively Favoring To-Infinitives

Certain verbs, such as hope and wish, exhibit an exclusive preference for to-infinitive constructions in both PhE and SgE, reflecting their semantic association with futurity and hypothetical actions. In PhE, hope occurs 20 times (normalized 0.20) and wish 15 times (normalized 0.22), consistently selecting to-infinitives to encode intentions or hypothetical outcomes. For example:

(20)	PhE: Hope to complete my studies. (ICE-PHI:S1A-052#173:1:B)

SgE exhibits a similar pattern, with hope appearing 33 times (normalized 0.48) and wish 16 times (normalized 0.23). The relatively higher frequency of wish in SgE may reflect its use as a politeness strategy or a marker of deference, consistent with research on the pragmatic use of modal verbs and volitional constructions in Asian Englishes (e.g., Lim, 2007; Platt et al., 1983). In multilingual contexts like Singapore, indirectness and hedging through volitional verbs such as wish can function as a face-saving strategy, helping to maintain social harmony and minimize direct imposition. For example:

(21)	SgE: We wish to explain that the allocation of flats ultimately depends on the demand and supply of flats in the estate applied for. (ICE-SIN:W1B-022#126:6)

3.2.2. Verbs Demonstrating Mixed Preferences

Verbs such as like and try demonstrate variability in their complement selection, highlighting their contextual flexibility. In PhE, like shows 130 occurrences with gerunds (normalized 1.89) compared to 546 with to-infinitives (normalized 7.94). This pattern suggests that in PhE, gerunds are more commonly employed to emphasize habituality or descriptive actions, whereas to-infinitives are used to encode intent or purpose. The verb try shows a similar trend in PhE, with 24 occurrences with gerunds (normalized 0.35) compared to 298 with to-infinitives (normalized 4.34).

In SgE, both like and try favor to-infinitives but show greater flexibility with gerunds in conversational contexts. For instance, like occurs 6 times with gerunds (normalized 0.09) and 267 times with to-infinitives (normalized 3.92) in spoken data. The higher normalized frequency of gerunds with like in SgE reflects its pragmatic role in conversational discourse. The following example illustrates this variability:

(22)	SgE: I like to see it as a point where the teenager kind of gets to a point where he loses adults supervision whether it be uh the parent as the authority figure or school uh with the teacher of principal. (ICE-SIN:S1B-027#11:1:C)

Similarly, the verb try shows a greater degree of variation in SgE compared to PhE. In SgE, try occurs 8 times with gerunds (normalized 0.12) and 170 times with to-infinitives (normalized 2.49) in spoken contexts. This pattern reflects the pragmatic flexibility of try in SgE, where it may function to signal effort or experimentation:

(23)	SgE: and then of and then he will like talk to you and then if he thinks he likes working with you then okay you know he doesn’t mind. (ICE-SIN:S1A-097#236:1:A)

3.2.3. Verbs Exclusively Favoring Gerunds

The verb enjoy consistently pairs with gerunds in both PhE and SgE, reflecting the inherent semantic properties of enjoy, which align with habitual or ongoing actions. In PhE, enjoy occurs 8 times in spoken data (normalized 0.12) and 10 times in written data (normalized 0.22). The relatively low frequency reflects the more limited role of gerunds in PhE compared to to-infinitives.

(24)	PhE: I enjoy teaching my classes. (ICE-PHI:W1B-007#43:1)

3.3. Statistical Results: Verb Complementation Across Registers and Varieties

The statistical analysis using ANOVA validates the patterns observed in the distribution of to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions across PhE and SgE. Magpale and Ferrer (2015) previously provided a frequency-based analysis of verb complementation in PhE; the current study extends this analysis by introducing normalized values and conducting a systematic ANOVA to assess the significance of register (spoken vs. written) and variety (PhE vs. SgE) in shaping verb complementation patterns. The analysis highlights key grammatical and sociolinguistic factors influencing the selection of to-infinitive and gerund complements, providing a clearer empirical basis for understanding the syntactic variability in Southeast Asian Englishes.

The effect size was measured using partial eta squared (η²) to assess the proportion of variance explained by the main effects and interaction terms. Following Cohen (1988), η² values were interpreted as small (0.01), moderate (0.06), and large (0.14). This approach allows for a more precise evaluation of the strength of the observed patterns, enabling a nuanced understanding of the grammatical and sociolinguistic factors shaping verb complementation across registers and varieties.

3.3.1. Spoken Contexts

In spoken registers, to-infinitive constructions dominate in both PhE and SgE, but the ANOVA results (

Table 3. (a) ANOVA Results for Verb Complementation Patterns in PhE and SgE (Spoken). (b) ANOVA Results for Verb Complementation Patterns in PhE and SgE (Written).

Source	Sum of Squares	df	F-Value	p-Value	Partial Eta Squared
(a)
Variety	0.86	1	0.071	0.792	0.003
Verb Type	91.33	1	7.56	0.01	0.213
Variety × Verb Type	0.045	1	0.004	0.952	0
Residual	338.11	28
(b)
Variety	0.061	1	0.082	0.777	0.003
Verb Type	12.04	1	16.05	0.0004	0.364
Variety × Verb Type	0.054	1	0.072	0.79	0.003
Residual	21	28

a) reveal that the main effects of variety and verb type are not statistically significant, and there is no significant interaction between them. This suggests that the observed preference for to-infinitives in spoken discourse reflects a shared grammatical foundation rather than variety-specific differences.

The main effect of variety is not significant (F(1,28) = 0.071, p = 0.792) with a negligible effect size (η² = 0.003), indicating that PhE and SgE exhibit similar overall patterns in spoken contexts. The main effect of verb type is statistically significant (F(1,28) = 7.56, p = 0.010) with a large effect size (η² = 0.213), suggesting that while to-infinitives are preferred in both varieties, the difference is large enough to reach statistical significance. The interaction effect is non-significant (F(1,28) = 0.004, p = 0.952) with a negligible effect size (η² = 0.000), implying that the influence of register on verb complementation is consistent across both PhE and SgE.

Despite the lack of statistical significance in the interaction term, the strong effect size for verb type indicates that the preference for to-infinitives in spoken contexts is robust. This aligns with the communicative demands of conversational discourse, where to-infinitives are favored for encoding intentionality and goal-directed actions. For example, in PhE, want shows a normalized frequency of 12.62 in spoken data, compared to 3.41 in written data, reflecting its role in expressing direct intention and goal setting in spontaneous, interactional contexts.

In SgE, the higher normalized frequency of to-infinitives in spoken contexts (e.g., want = 15.65) suggests a similar tendency toward direct goal expression. However, SgE demonstrates greater syntactic flexibility with gerunds. For instance, like and try occasionally select gerunds in SgE, suggesting that multilingual influence facilitates greater variation in spoken discourse. The large effect size for verb type (η² = 0.213) confirms that the preference for to-infinitives in spoken contexts is systematic and meaningful. The slightly greater syntactic flexibility in SgE, indicated by the higher use of gerunds, may reflect substrate influence from languages like Mandarin and Malay, where verb-complement structures are more fluid (Bao, 2005).

3.3.2. Written Contexts

In written registers, the patterns reveal more structured preferences for verb complementation. The ANOVA results (Table 3b) show a significant main effect of verb type (F(1,28) = 16.05, p = 0.0004) with a large effect size (η² = 0.364), indicating that the difference between to-infinitives and gerunds is systematic and substantial in written contexts.

The non-significant effect for variety (F(1,28) = 0.082, p = 0.777) with a near-zero effect size (η² = 0.003) suggests that both PhE and SgE demonstrate similar preferences for to-infinitives and gerunds in written contexts. The non-significant interaction effect (F(1,28) = 0.072, p = 0.790) with a negligible effect size (η² = 0.003) further suggests that the distributional patterns of verb complementation are consistent across varieties in written discourse.

The significant main effect for verb type reflects a structural distinction between to-infinitives and gerunds in written registers. For instance, in PhE, enjoy shows a normalized frequency of 0.22 in written contexts, aligning with its semantic role in encoding habitual or descriptive actions. Similarly, in SgE, enjoy occurs with a normalized frequency of 0.14, reflecting similar grammatical constraints across varieties.

3.4. Syntactic Patterns of Subjectless Nonfinite Clauses in PhE and SgE

In Section 3.1, the use of to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions in PhE and SgE was explored, focusing on their frequency and distribution across spoken and written texts. Building on this, Section 3.3 examines how subjectless nonfinite clauses function syntactically in PhE and SgE, specifically as direct objects in various types of clauses, including independent clauses, interrogative sentences, and relative clauses. PhE examples are sourced from Magpale and Ferrer (2015). This analysis, based on data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), provides further insights into how verb complementation in these varieties reflects sociocultural factors such as pragmatic strategies, discourse organization, and communicative context.

a.

Direct Object in Independent Clauses

In both PhE and SgE, subjectless nonfinite clauses frequently function as direct objects of main verbs in independent clauses.

In (25), the infinitive clause to sing away serves as the direct object of the verb hopes. The construction specifies the intended action associated with the subject:

(25)	PhE: Dubbed as a senatoriable with a golden voice, she hopes to sing away to the hearts of the Filipinos with a campaign to fight graft and reduce taxes. (ICE-PHI:S1B-029#3:1:A)

Similarly, in (26), the infinitive clause to protect from data loss and virus attacks functions as the direct object of the verb need to take, indicating a procedural requirement:

(26)	SgE: Organisations need to take preventive measures to protect from data loss and virus attacks, and also against computer frauds and breakdowns. (ICE-SIN:W2B-036#38:2)

b.

Direct Object in Interrogative Sentences

Subjectless nonfinite clauses also appear as direct objects in interrogative sentences, often embedded within verbs like want and hope.

In (27a) and (27b), the infinitive clause to talk about functions as the direct object of the verb want, specifying the conversational focus:

(27a)	PhE: What do you want to talk about? (ICE-PHI:S1A-013#)
(27b)	PhE: Why do you want to talk about Erap? (ICE-PHI:S1A-017#10:1:B)

In SgE, similar patterns are observed, as in (28a) and (28b), where infinitive clauses act as direct objects to indicate future-oriented goals:

(28a)	SgE: Does it mean you want to go back to Malaysia and stay? (ICE-SIN:S1A-035#167:2:E)
(28b)	SgE: How do you hope to go about achieving this? (ICE-SIN:S1B-049#51:1:D)

c.

Direct Object in Relative Clauses

In relative clauses, nonfinite clauses often serve as direct objects, providing additional specificity to the action or subject.

In (29), the infinitive clause to eat functions as the direct object of want within the relative clause who would want to eat sandwich, clarifying the subject’s preference:

(29)	PhE: It is my mother who would want to eat sandwich. (ICE-PHI:S1B-004#60:1:A)

In (30), the infinitive clause to write programs functions as the direct object of want, embedded in a technical context:

(30)	SgE: When the developers want to write programs that access the database, do they write the queries based on the conceptual model? (ICE-SIN:W2A-037#37:2)

d.

Direct Object in Hypothetical Statements

Nonfinite clauses often appear as direct objects in hypothetical constructions, indicating conditional or speculative scenarios.

In (31), the infinitive clause to join functions as the direct object of wants, expressing a conditional intention:

(31)	PhE: Well, if he wants to join us <&> speaker B chuckles. (ICE-PHI:S1A-037#138:1:A)

Similarly, in (32), the infinitive clause to build acts as the direct object of want, conveying a strategic proposal:

(32)	SgE: Okay, let’s say you want to build another country codes like uh Malaysia. (ICE-SIN:S2A-052#94:1)

e.

[Modal + Base Form] + Nonfinite Clause as Direct Object

Subjectless nonfinite clauses frequently occur as direct objects in modal constructions, emphasizing obligations or intentions.

In (33), the infinitive clause to seek serves as the direct object of the verb phrase would like, conveying a polite request:

(33)	PhE: Well uh right now we would like to seek the help of the government the D O T in seeking more liberal uh arrangements with uh countries. (ICE-PHI:S1B-027#82:1:G)

In (34), the infinitive clause to use leaded petrol functions as the direct object of need, aligning with procedural discourse:

(34)	SgE: The Ministry has assured the public that it will not be stopping the sale and use of leaded petrol since about ten percent of the cars in Singapore will still need to use leaded petrol. (ICE-SIN:S2B-017#20:1:B)

f.

[Negator + Main Verb] + Nonfinite Clause

Nonfinite clauses also serve as direct objects in negative constructions, where the negator modifies the main verb.

In (35), the infinitive clause to delve acts as the direct object of wish, emphasizing the negation of an intended action:

(35)	PhE: I do not wish to delve into the issue of how and why almost two point five million Filipinos have migrated to North. (ICE-PHI:S2B-025#36:2:A)

In (36), the infinitive clause to be functions as the direct object of does not need, framing the absence of necessity:

(36)	SgE: A grammar test, therefore, does not need to be a discrete point test. (ICE-SIN:W2A-007#X108:1)

Interestingly, the construction [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause functions as a syntactic mechanism for framing negated intentions or actions in both PhE and SgE. In these structures, the negator modifies the main verb try, while the nonfinite clause serves as its direct object, specifying the action being avoided.

g.

[Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause

This kind of construction serves as a syntactic mechanism for framing negated intentions or actions, with the negator modifying the main verb and the nonfinite clause functioning as its direct object.

In (37), the infinitive clause to complain serves as the direct object of try not, highlighting a conscious effort to avoid an action:

(37)	PhE: But I I try <&> clears throat </&> I try not to complain too much at the restaurants you know whatever but because of ingesting other people ’s spit and so forth you know <&> speaker C laughs </&>. (ICE-PHI:S1B-035#27:1:B)

The negator not modifies the main verb try, creating a syntactic split between the main verb and its complement. This construction emphasizes the speaker’s intentional restraint. The elaborative commentary following to complain aligns with PhE’s expressive tendency to provide detailed narratives and contextual elaboration. The frequent inclusion of hedging expressions (e.g., you know, whatever) further reflects a sociolinguistic preference for mitigating directness in negative constructions.

In (38), the infinitive clause to circumscribe acts as the direct object of try not, similarly framing a deliberate avoidance of a specified action:

(38)	SgE: So I I try not to circumscribe lah otherwise it’ll be too much (ICE-SIN:S1A-034#231:1:C).

Here, the negator not modifies try, and the infinitive clause to circumscribe specifies the negated behavior. The inclusion of the discourse particle lah reflects the pragmatic and interactive nature of SgE, softening the negation and situating it within a conversational framework.

4. Discussion

This study reveals the intricate relationship between syntax and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses across PhE and SgE. While both varieties exhibit shared grammatical tendencies, such as the dominance of to-infinitive constructions, their differing use of gerunds underscores distinct sociocultural and linguistic dynamics. These patterns highlight how English, as adapted in Southeast Asia, reflects the cultural, historical, and communicative priorities of its speakers. The statistical analysis provides clear empirical support for these patterns, showing significant distinctions in how verb complementation is structured across registers and varieties.

4.1. To-Infinitive Constructions

The dominance of to-infinitive constructions across both PhE and SgE reflects their shared grammatical heritage within the framework of English as a global language. However, the underlying sociocultural motivations for their prevalence diverge, shaped by each variety’s unique linguistic ecology, cultural history, and communicative practices.

The statistical analysis confirms that to-infinitives are more frequent than gerunds across both spoken and written registers, but the patterns of usage differ between PhE and SgE. In PhE, to-infinitive constructions dominate in both spoken and written contexts. In spoken contexts, the effect of verb type is statistically significant (F(1,28) = 7.56, p = 0.01). The effect size (η² = 0.213) suggests that the preference for to-infinitives in PhE is notable in spoken discourse. In written contexts, the effect of verb type is statistically significant (F(1,28) = 16.05, p = 0.0004) with a large effect size (η² = 0.364), confirming that the preference for to-infinitives is more systematically embedded in written discourse.

The reliance on to-infinitives in PhE, evidenced by high normalized frequencies for verbs such as want (12.62) and need (4.05) in spoken contexts, reflects English’s entrenched role in the Philippines as a language of prestige, education, and social mobility. This linguistic preference can be traced back to English’s introduction during the American colonial period, where it was institutionalized as the medium of instruction and governance. Over time, English’s prominence in academic and professional domains has reinforced the use of to-infinitives, which are associated with clarity, correctness, and explicit communication. The following examples illustrate how to-infinitives function across different discourse contexts in PhE:

(39)	PhE: These banks would uh want to be presented feasibility studies what are these projects to be undertaken the costing. (ICE-PHI:S1B-052#105:1:C)
(40)	PhE: I feel so tired but I want to go out. (ICE-PHI:S1A-086#233:1:A)
(41)	PhE: Nonetheless I think Mr President that the United States is essentially a democratic country and therefore it wants to ground its police actions on agreements and treaties that are enforceable or justifiable under the law of nations. (ICE-PHI:S2B-035#27:1:A)
(42)	PhE: He wants to be a good boy now not a bad boy. (ICE-PHI:S1A-001#59:1:B)

These examples suggest that to-infinitives serve as a linguistic tool for articulating intention and purpose with precision, aligning with communicative norms across various discourse contexts. Their frequent use in written contexts—such as in academic or business communication—further highlights their role in ensuring clarity and professionalism. This pattern reflects PhE speakers’ reliance on prescriptive norms, likely shaped by English’s historical function as a marker of socio-economic mobility.

In SgE, to-infinitives similarly dominate but reflect the multilingual and pragmatic linguistic environment of Singapore, where English functions as a lingua franca. The normalized frequency of want (15.65) and need (4.28) in spoken SgE suggests that to-infinitives play a comparable functional role in encoding direct intentions and goals. However, SgE shows greater syntactic flexibility with gerunds, reflecting the influence of substrate languages like Mandarin and Malay (Bao, 2005). The following examples illustrate how to-infinitives are pragmatically adapted in SgE:

(43)	SgE: If you have a Bachelor’s degree and looking to get a masters one country you might want to go to is France. (ICE-SIN:S1B-049#67:1:A)
(44)	SgE: I am I may not want to go to Ministry of Labour for my attachment uh. (ICE-SIN:S1A-032#185:1:B)2  Why not? (ICE-SIN:S1A-032#186:1:A) Don’t know whether got time. (ICE-SIN:S1A-032#187:1:B) Maybe later next year lah. (ICE-SIN:S1A-032#188:1:B)
(45)	SgE: She she was saying that she wants to go to Open University (ICE-SIN:S1A-005#99:1:A)

Unlike PhE, where historical and educational norms drive a preference for prescriptive structures, SgE’s reliance on to-infinitives reflects its role as a flexible medium in a society balancing multiple languages and cultures. The inclusion of discourse particles like lah further illustrates how to-infinitives are adapted to Singapore’s unique sociolinguistic landscape.

4.2. Gerunds

Corpus analysis indicates that PhE speakers exhibit a statistically significant preference for to-infinitives over gerunds, particularly in written contexts. The large effect size for verb type in written contexts (η² = 0.364) confirms that the distinction between to-infinitive and gerund complements is structured and systematic.

Gerunds in PhE primarily occur in habitual or descriptive contexts, often following verbs like like, love, enjoy, and try:

(46)	PhE: That’s the time when I really liked watching PBA. (ICE-PHI:S1A-001#261:1:B)
(47)	PhE: You could try hiding in the ruins of the Kingdom, that phony Paradise. (ICE-PHI:W2F-015#202:1)
(48)	PhE: It is not only the body of Filipino writings in English that needs bringing home. (ICE-PHI:W2A-006#44:1)
(49)	PhE: Yeah I bought this in the hotel in Rama Garden because it’s so you know me I love compartmentalizing it. (ICE-PHI:S1A-004#212:1:A)

These examples indicate that gerunds in PhE predominantly occur in habitual or descriptive contexts. The presence of enjoy + gerund, as seen in (50), further underscores their limited but structured role:

(50)	PhE: I really enjoy talking to students about computers that’s why since uh I don’t have any commitments at this time I readily accepted the the invitation. (ICE-PHI:S2A-049#4:1:A)

In contrast, SgE demonstrates broader syntactic flexibility with gerunds, reflecting its pragmatic and multilingual orientation. One particularly notable feature is the want + -ing construction, absent in PhE but attested in SgE, as shown below:

(51)	SgE: It is the people money and if the people want upgrading you have to give it to them. (ICE-SIN:S1B-051#68:1:A)
	This is what a democratic society is all about. (ICE-SIN:S1B-051#69:1:A)

This pattern has been attributed to substrate influence from Malay and Chinese, where verbs of desire often co-occur with noun-like or progressive verb forms (Bao, 2005). This adaptation illustrates SgE’s pragmatic accommodation of its multilingual speakers, fostering a linguistic framework that prioritizes communicative efficiency and contextual adaptability.

4.3. Discourse Functions of Verb-Specific Complementation Patterns

The syntactic preferences of individual verbs in PhE and SgE offer a window into how each variety reflects cultural values and linguistic priorities. The statistical analysis confirms that while both varieties share underlying grammatical structures, their use of to-infinitive and gerund constructions reflects distinct sociolinguistic and communicative dynamics.

4.3.1. Volitional Verbs: Hope and Wish

The ANOVA results confirm that verb type significantly influences complementation patterns in written contexts (F(1,28) = 16.05, p = 0.0004), with a large effect size (η² = 0.364). This suggests that the distinction between to-infinitive and gerund complements is more systematically embedded in written discourse. In PhE, hope and wish frequently appear in contexts where intention and aspiration are expressed. For instance, hope occurs 34 times in PhE (normalized 0.15), while wish occurs 30 times (normalized 0.28), underscoring their functional role in encoding intention and aspiration.

(52)	PhE: For studying we hope to get a good job especially DLSU if you are a graduate of DLSU it’s you know it’s like a ticket to I don’t know where <O> laughter </O> a ticket to a a a good paying job in a multinational corporation. (ICE-PHI:W2A-046#106:1:A)
(53)	PhE: Uh there is a lot of hope that’s being pinned on on the omnibus power bill <{> <[> <,> </[> because it hopes to be able to institute certain reforms and restructuring in that industry. (ICE-PHI:W1B-049#95:1:B)
(54)	PhE: These are the thoughts I wish to share Mr President. (ICE-PHI:W2A-067#175:1:A)

These examples illustrate how hope and wish are predominantly used to articulate aspirations and proposals in structured and institutional discourse. The reliance on to-infinitives in these contexts aligns with the preference for explicit, prescriptive grammatical norms in PhE usage, reinforcing the variety’s association with correctness and hierarchical communication.

In SgE, hope and wish also select to-infinitive complements, but their usage extends across a range of pragmatic and goal-oriented discourse contexts. While the effect of variety is not statistically significant in written data (F(1,28) = 0.082, p = 0.777), the higher frequency of to-infinitives in SgE reflects its functional adaptability in a multilingual environment. For example:

(55)	SgE: If we wish to encourage our researchers and entrepreneurs to venture into new and unexplored areas, easy and fast access to patent protection including inexpensive legal expenses, simple application procedures etc are the essential incentives. (ICE-SIN:W2A-031#X162:1)
(56)	SgE: The bottom I think has been established we hope to see short of a very major political shock I think so unlikely that there will be a huge drop in markets anywhere in the world. (ICE-SIN:S1B-028#11:1:B)
(57)	SgE: If you do not wish to join MediShield or MediShield Plus, please sign the lower portion of the enclosed MediShield Certificate and return it to us before the date indicated there. (ICE-SIN:W1B-030#15:1)
(58)	SgE: Ya I hope to take vacation because I got a lot of leave to clear. (ICE-SIN:S1A-072#162:1:A)

Unlike PhE, SgE allows hope and wish to appear in more pragmatic interactions, as seen in (58), where the discourse marker Ya softens the statement and integrates it into a conversational context. This distinction aligns with previous research on SgE’s register fluidity and the influence of discourse particles in spontaneous speech (Gupta, 1994).

In sum, while both PhE and SgE use hope and wish with to-infinitives, PhE maintains their use in more institutionalized settings, reinforcing prescriptive norms and hierarchical communication. SgE, on the other hand, integrates these verbs across a broader range of contexts, reflecting its pragmatic adaptability and multilingual influences. This distinction underscores how each variety negotiates linguistic norms and communicative flexibility.

4.3.2. Experiential and Effort Verbs: Like, Try and Love

The verbs like, try, and love reveal interesting patterns in their preference for gerund constructions in both PhE and SgE. These verbs, often used to express experiential preferences or efforts, highlight the nuanced interplay between syntactic choices and communicative priorities in each variety.

In PhE, speakers frequently use gerunds in expressive and narrative discourse, often associated with elaborative storytelling (Bautista, 2000). The significant effect for verb type in spoken data (F(1,28) = 7.56, p = 0.01) suggests that gerund and to-infinitive distributions differ in meaningful ways. The following examples highlight PhE’s preference for gerunds in expressive discourse:

(59)	PhE: But then I don’t like leaving the theater sad <{> <[> or </[> scared. (ICE-PHI:S1A-049#191:1:B)
(60)	PhE: Try sitting on a bench for some time and you would probably be able to distinguish a few types of dressers </p>. (ICE-PHI:W1A-012#116:6)
(61)	PhE: But Nature loves being mystery woman, and filling each life with mystery. (ICE-PHI:W2F-003#50:1)

In SgE, gerunds are used more flexibly, particularly in pragmatic, goal-oriented discourse. The higher use of gerunds in spoken SgE reflects its greater adaptability to conversational and instructional contexts:

(62)	SgE: Who likes eating chucks you know what I call due <unclear> word </unclear> <X>. (ICE-SIN:S1B-034#82:1:A)
(63)	SgE: Try growing ferns or other foliage plants beneath the orchids. (ICE-SIN:W2D-016#82:1)
(64)	SgE: Ya ya I I love cooking. <ICE-SIN:S1A-019#67:1:B>

The pragmatic use of gerunds in SgE aligns with the multilingual influence on its syntax, where substrate languages like Mandarin and Malay promote more flexible verb-complement structures (Bao, 2005). The discourse particle Ya in (63) reflects the contextual nature of SgE’s gerund use, embedding it in conversational discourse.

Overall, PhE favors gerunds in expressive and narrative contexts, emphasizing habituality and elaboration, while SgE uses them in pragmatic and goal-oriented discourse, focusing on efficiency and directness. This contrast reflects PhE’s preference for detailed expression and SgE’s functional linguistic economy in instructional and conversational settings.

4.4. Syntactic Highlight: [Negator] + Try + Nonfinite Clause

The construction [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause offers a syntactic framework for expressing negated attempts or intentional restraint. This structure, where the negator modifies try and the nonfinite clause functions as its complement, is a notable feature in both PhE and SgE. It highlights how these varieties of English adapt standard grammar to align with their sociocultural and communicative priorities.

In PhE, [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause frequently appears in narrative contexts, emphasizing deliberate restraint while allowing for elaborative commentary. Example (65) illustrates this usage:

(65)	PhE: But I I try <&> clears throat </&> I try not to complain too much at the restaurants you know whatever but because of ingesting other people’s spit and so forth you know <&> speaker C laughs </&>. (ICE-PHI:S1B-035#27:1:B)

In this instance, the negator not modifies try, highlighting the speaker’s effort to avoid complaining. The nonfinite clause to complain acts as the direct object of try not, specifying the negated action. The presence of hedging devices (you know, whatever) and elaborative discourse markers reflects PhE’s tendency for expressive and mitigated communication (Bautista, 2000).

This elaborative style aligns with PhE’s preference for indirectness and contextual backgrounding, particularly in spoken discourse. The use of extended reasoning (because of ingesting other people’s spit and so forth) exemplifies how PhE speakers justify or rationalize their negated attempts rather than simply stating them. This pattern reinforces findings on PhE’s narrative-driven discourse structure, where negation is frequently contextualized through personal reflections (Gonzales & Dita, 2018).

In SgE, [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause also expresses negated attempts but is generally integrated into pragmatic, goal-oriented, and context-sensitive discourse. Example (66) illustrates this succinct structure:

(66)	SgE: <p> The other idea worth keeping in mind is the need not to confuse values with language. (ICE-SIN:W2E-007#17:1)

Here, the negator not modifies the infinitive verb to confuse, though the construction is governed by need. While the main verb is different from try, the syntactic role of negation in modifying an implicit effort or attempt is structurally comparable.

Unlike PhE, SgE presents negation in a direct, concise manner, aligning with its functional and efficiency-driven discourse style. The absence of hedging devices or elaborative reasoning suggests that SgE prioritizes clarity over mitigating directness (Platt et al., 1983; Gupta, 1994). This pattern reflects SgE’s role as a lingua franca, where communication is often transactional and direct to accommodate speakers from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

Ultimately, while both PhE and SgE employ [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause, their realizations reflect distinct discourse strategies. PhE favors an elaborative and mitigated approach, embedding negation within expressive commentary and justification, whereas SgE presents negation concisely, prioritizing clarity and efficiency in communication. This contrast underscores how PhE leans toward contextual backgrounding, while SgE maintains directness in its lingua franca role.

5. Conclusions

This study illuminates the intricate relationship between syntax and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses in Philippine English (PhE) and Singaporean English (SgE). Both varieties share a grammatical tendency toward the dominance of to-infinitive constructions, reflecting their shared English heritage. However, the differing use of gerunds underscores the distinct sociocultural and linguistic ecologies of these varieties.

In PhE, to-infinitives dominate due to English’s historical role as a standardized language introduced during the American colonial period. This preference aligns with PhE’s emphasis on prescriptive norms, explicitness, and professionalism in communication. Examples from academic, political, and everyday contexts demonstrate the versatility of to-infinitives in articulating purpose and intention. In contrast, SgE adapts to-infinitives to its multilingual context, using them pragmatically across personal, professional, and interactional settings. The incorporation of discourse markers like lah reflects SgE’s sociolinguistic flexibility and alignment with its diverse linguistic landscape.

Gerund usage provides further contrast. PhE’s adherence to prescriptive norms limits gerunds to specific semantic roles, such as expressing habitual or descriptive actions with verbs like enjoy and like. Meanwhile, SgE demonstrates broader syntactic flexibility, including constructions like want + -ing, absent in PhE. This innovation reflects the pragmatic and inclusive nature of SgE, accommodating diverse linguistic influences while emphasizing contextual relevance and accessibility.

Verb-specific trends highlight how cultural values shape grammatical choices. Volitional verbs like hope and wish align with to-infinitives in both varieties, but their use in PhE often appears in contexts associated with education and professional aspirations. In SgE, these verbs occur across a wide range of communicative settings, reflecting a pragmatic and versatile linguistic pattern. Experiential and effort verbs like like, try, and love show distinct preferences for -ing forms, with PhE favoring these constructions in descriptive and expressive discourse, while SgE employs them in more utilitarian and interactional contexts.

The construction [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause further reveals sociocultural nuances. In PhE, this construction often appears with elaborative commentary, reflecting a preference for narrative depth and emotional resonance. In contrast, SgE tends to use this form more concisely, emphasizing clarity and pragmatic efficiency across various communicative contexts.

Overall, the study demonstrates how substrate influences reconfigure syntactic variation in Southeast Asian Englishes. While PhE prioritizes prescriptive clarity, aligning with its historical and educational traditions, SgE exhibits syntactic adaptability shaped by its multilingual and multicultural ecology. These findings highlight how syntax reflects sociocultural identities.