The Legal Framework for Space Debris Remediation as a Tool for Sustainability in Outer Space
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Why Space Debris Remediation? The Facts
2.1. The Status of the Outer Space Environment
2.2. The Legal Framework for Space Activities
2.3. The Future of the Outer Space Environment
2.3.1. Sustainability as a Condition for the Usability of Outer Space
2.3.2. The Need to Act
3. The Definition and Scope of Space Debris Remediation
3.1. The Deficiencies of the Legal Framework Related to Space Debris Remediation (SDR)
- It is not yet clear how a substantial risk should be defined so as to decide which fragments should be removed first. Art. II and III of the Registration Convention provide that space objects have to be registered in a national register and be carried on a register maintained by the United Nations General Secretary. Art. IV requires that data describing the name of the launching state(s), the designator of the space object, the date and territory of launch, the general function of the space object, as well as basic orbital parameters of the space objects (nodal period, inclination, apogee and perigee) are provided. However, these elements do not provide for the functionality and current status of the space object and, thus, cannot serve as criteria to determine its eligibility for removal.
- The legal framework does not provide standards to decide on whether an object constitutes space debris. Moreover, the legal regime for space activities does not define what space debris is. Therefore, it could be questionable what the criteria to define a space object as debris should be: its functionality, its controllability? For example, it could be aimed at first removing objects which cannot be attributed to a state registry—e.g., because their origin cannot be identified, which would be the case for the majority of small debris fragments.
- The question of attribution through registration is closely linked to the jurisdiction of states over their space objects. While outer space and celestial bodies are free from sovereignty, according to Art. VIII of the OST states shall retain jurisdiction and control over the space objects carried on their registry. The notion “jurisdiction” means that states withhold the power to legally enforce over their space objects and “control” is the factual element which ensures that the possibility to technically control the satellite lies within the state registry.
- Also, the specific liability regime for space activities as established by Art. VII of the OST [26] and further elaborated in the 1972 Liability Convention [28] poses many questions for SDR operations. First, only states can be held liable for damages caused by space objects (Art. VII OST). Liability is, thereby, twofold: according to Art. II of the Liability Convention, for damages occurred in airspace or on the surface of the Earth, states have to pay compensation on the basis of “absolute liability”. Therefore, no fault must be proven. The conditions that need to be given are a damage to property, life or health caused by a space object of a launching state to persons or states. (Art. I lit. (a) Liability Convention). Thus, attributability suffices, as long as it is known which the launching state is.
- Furthermore, no change or transfer of ownership of space objects is foreseen in the space law treaties. Art. VIII of the OST foresees that jurisdiction and control shall be retained by the state registry. None of the space law treaty provisions includes a regulation regarding a possible transfer of ownership and control over satellites. Thus, once a state has launched a space object, even if it has been thereafter sold to another entity or state, the original launching state remains liable for all potential damages caused by this space object. Any deviating clause must be concluded bilaterally between the launching state and the purchaser and it is only binding between these two parties. Thus, in the case of an accident that occurred during an ADR mission on a transferred satellite, the original launching state will be held liable for any potential damage, although it might have not had any control possibilities over the satellite. The launching state can then only hold recourse against the purchaser according to their bilateral agreement for the compensation paid to the damaged party.
- Another relevant concern of launching states and entities with regard to ADR and OOS missions is security, especially for military satellites. As satellite infrastructure is a strategic asset, it is questionable whether state registries which do not possess enough financial and technological capabilities to remove their objects by themselves would give consent to third parties to undertake SDR. Furthermore, ADR systems entail a capability which is not restricted only to space debris and they could be used, if such an intent is given, for the removal or diversion also of assets. This dual characteristic, both civil and military, makes ADR a sensitive capability and presents a hurdle to reaching agreement between states for its implementation in practice and to raise funding in cooperation for the development of ADR techniques.
3.2. SDR and the Role of Non-Binding Instruments
3.3. Legal Avenues to Facilitate SDR
3.4. Further Issues to Be Addressed by the Law
- a “cost effective” technique;
- a proper legal and policy framework to protect the parties involved and to deal with “alternative use” concerns;
- available and willing targets for removal or customer for servicing;
- funding: for the time being, for establishing, testing and developing technologies and SDR techniques; in the future—for carrying out such operations;
- accurate tracking and necessary assistance during operations;
- capability to locate, approach, connect deorbit/servicing device, control orientation and to move the target object to desired destination;
- safety of the public on the ground, at sea, travelling by air and in space.
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References and Notes
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Company | No. Satellites | Orbit | Mass/kg | Frequencies | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
OneWeb | 900 | 1200 km, 18 polar planes | 175–200 | Ku-Band | First to register the frequencies at the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) |
Starlink (SpaceX) | 4425 | 1100–1325 km, 83 planes, 53–81° incl. | 100–500 | Ku/Ka | First 2 demo satellites in orbit (launched 22 February 2018); optical inter-satellite link |
Boeing | 2956 | 1200 km | --- | V-Band | --- |
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Popova, R.; Schaus, V. The Legal Framework for Space Debris Remediation as a Tool for Sustainability in Outer Space. Aerospace 2018, 5, 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5020055
Popova R, Schaus V. The Legal Framework for Space Debris Remediation as a Tool for Sustainability in Outer Space. Aerospace. 2018; 5(2):55. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5020055
Chicago/Turabian StylePopova, Rada, and Volker Schaus. 2018. "The Legal Framework for Space Debris Remediation as a Tool for Sustainability in Outer Space" Aerospace 5, no. 2: 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5020055
APA StylePopova, R., & Schaus, V. (2018). The Legal Framework for Space Debris Remediation as a Tool for Sustainability in Outer Space. Aerospace, 5(2), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5020055