Investigating the Gender-Climate Nexus: Strengthening Women’s Roles in Adaptation and Mitigation in the Sidi Bouzid Region

Abstract

Tunisia faces significant challenges related to climate change, which deeply affect its natural and agricultural resources. This reality threatens not only food security but also the economic stability of rural communities and mainly rural women. This research aims to assess the impact of climate change on rural women in the agricultural development group in Sidi Bouzid, focusing on the strategies adopted and the support provided by various stakeholders to mitigate this impact. To achieve this, we developed a rigorous methodology that includes structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and topological analysis through Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA). The results revealed that rural women were categorized into three groups based on their vulnerability to climate change: severely vulnerable, vulnerable, and adaptive. The findings highlighted the significant impact of climate change on water resources, which has increased family tensions and reduced agricultural incomes, making daily life more challenging for rural women. Furthermore, a deeper analysis of interactions with external stakeholders emphasized the important role of civil society, public organizations, and research institutions in strengthening the climate resilience of rural women. Given these findings, strategic recommendations aim to enhance stakeholder coordination, expand partnerships, and improve access to essential technologies and resources for women in agricultural development groups.

1. Introduction

The future development prospects of many African countries are closely linked to the agricultural sector [1]. Like any economic activity, agriculture requires the right resources and factors for optimal performance. A key factor is human resources, particularly women, who play a central role in African agriculture [2,3]. Studies have shown that men, women, and children contribute to agricultural work in the proportions of 42%, 45%, and 14%, respectively [4]. Women’s share of the agricultural labor force varies across countries [2]. In fact, in Sub-Saharan Africa, women contribute by 60–80% of the labor used to produce food both for household consumption and for sale [3]. In the Congo, women account for 73% of those economically active in agriculture and produce more than 80% of the food crops. In Morocco, approximately 57% of the female population participates in agricultural activities, with greater involvement in animal agriculture (68%). Women are essential in agriculture, not only as wage workers but also as producers, processors, traders, and consumers, despite facing various constraints such as limited access to productive resources like water, technology, and finance [4]. Moreover, rural women are crucial to the economic stability and security of their families. They contribute significantly by implementing income-generating activities, in addition to managing household responsibilities like domestic chores and ensuring the kitchen remains operational. They also play an important role in resource management, particularly water, which is vital for both household needs and agricultural production [5].

However, despite their central role in the economy and resource management, rural women are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change [6]. The increasing frequency of extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, severely disrupts their ability to maintain agricultural production and manage household resources [7,8,9]. As noted by [6], gender vulnerability to climate change is linked to differences in roles and responsibilities, further compounded by limited resources, poor employment opportunities, and cultural constraints on women’s activities [10]. This vulnerability is heightened by women’s over representation among the world’s poor and their greater reliance on natural resources, which are increasingly threatened [11]. In particular, women often have less access to critical resources such as land, water, and agricultural inputs, which limits their capacity to adapt to the challenges posed by climate change [12]. Additionally, rural women are responsible for securing water, food, and fuel for cooking, but unequal access to natural resources significantly hinders their ability to meet these needs [13]. This lack of access limits their mobility and makes them more susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change [14]. Water scarcity, in particular, amplifies these challenges, as women are often responsible for both daily water needs and irrigation. Moreover, limited access to technologies and financial resources further hampers their ability to adapt to changing climate conditions. These factors make rural women more susceptible to food insecurity, economic instability, and the worsening of their already challenging living conditions [15]. The impact of climate change on rural women varies across countries. In Tunisia, rural women face significant challenges from extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves, which disrupt their roles in agricultural production and resource management [14,16]. To support them, the government has established agricultural women’s development groups, which are among the most common local development organizations in rural Tunisia. These groups provide services such as agricultural training, access to credit, and market facilitation, and they also promote collective action to address shared issues like improving water access, advocating for better infrastructure, and facilitating market access for rural products [17]. Despite this support, rural women remain the most vulnerable to climate change, which impacts resource availability and complicates their ability to adapt.

Research on the vulnerabilities of rural women, especially in the context of climate change and natural resource management, remains limited. Despite their central role in agricultural production and resource management, the contributions of women in these areas have often been overlooked or insufficiently explored in the existing literature. Although studies such as those by Labiadh [16] and CREDIF [18] provide valuable insights into gender issues in agriculture, they fail to adequately address the intersection of climate change and gender, particularly in terms of how climate change impacts the livelihoods of rural women and the adaptive strategies they employ. Further research by Naoum [19] has highlighted the gendered impacts of climate change in the MENA region, but specific insights into how rural women in Tunisia are affected by these challenges remain limited.

This research seeks to bridge this gap by focusing on the specific challenges faced by rural women in the Sidi Bouzid region of Tunisia, where climate change, coupled with water scarcity, has significant consequences for their agricultural activities and livelihoods. The aim of this research is to assess the impact of climate change on rural women who are members of agricultural development groups. It will evaluate the resilience strategies adopted by these members and explore how different stakeholders, including administrative and associative actors, influence the groups’ capacity to adapt to climate-induced challenges. The study will focus on two key questions:

1. How does climate change, along with water scarcity, affect the functioning of women’s agricultural development Groups in Sidi Bouzid?

2. How do administrative and associative actors shape the resilience or vulnerability of these groups?

2. Research Methodology

The research employed a mixed-methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative techniques to comprehensively assess the impact of climate change on the livelihoods of rural women [20]. This approach included focus group discussions to gather in-depth qualitative insights into the differential effects of extreme weather events on men and women in rural areas. Additionally, structured questionnaires were conducted to collect quantitative data on the socioeconomic status, climate change impacts, and adaptive strategies of rural women in the face of climate change. Furthermore, a topological analysis, utilizing Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), was employed to examine the relationships between various factors, such as access to resources, climate vulnerability, and adaptive capacity (Figure 1).

2.1. Mapping of Agricultural Organizations

Sidi Bouzid is one of Tunisia’s twenty-four administrative governorates. It is situated between latitudes 35°2′17.63″ N and longitude 9°29′5.78″ E (Figure 2). It is in central Tunisia and land locked. It covers an area of 7405 km². The governorate of Sidi Bouzid includes 12 districts, 10 municipalities, 111 sub-districts and 12 rural councils.

Sidi Bouzid has a population of 400 thousand inhabitants. A total of 77% of this population is rural and its income is generated by agriculture activities. Women account for 60% of the total workforce in the agricultural sector [21]. The illiteracy rate remains high, reaching 29.2% (compared to 18.8% nationally) [22].

This region falls within the lower arid zone, where precipitation is scarce and irregular, with an annual average ranging from 150 mm to 300 mm [21]. The area is notable for the scarcity of surface water, estimated at approximately 60 million m³. Given the scarcity of surface water, the population and agriculture heavily rely on groundwater. In 2016, the volume of exploited groundwater exceeded 95 million m³ [22], which highlights the increasing dependence on this resource. However, the increased extraction of groundwater raises concerns about the long-term sustainability of these reserves, as they do not recharge as quickly as surface water sources or aquifers. This could pose significant challenges for water management and resource security in the future. Despite progress in protecting women’s rights, gender inequality in Tunisia persists, particularly when it comes to household chores [23] and access to education [24]. The situation for women in rural areas remains especially challenging: 40% of rural women are illiterate, and many face significant health issues due to limited access to free healthcare [25]. In Sidi Bouzid, where women constitute 60% of the agricultural workforce and face a higher unemployment rate than that of men [26], the region’s economic difficulties have particularly affected women. To empower women in the region, the government established six development groups following the revolution.

As part of our sample selection process, we conducted a series of working meetings with the director of the rural women’s district at the governorate level, as well as with the presidents of the six agricultural development groups. In-depth interviews with each president provided a clearer understanding of how these groups function, guiding our selection for this study. These development groups were created between 2017 and 2022: Two were established in 2017 and are currently active, two were created in 2020 but are not operational, and two were founded in 2023 and have yet to become active. For the purpose of this study, we are therefore focusing on the currently operational groups. Consequently, the two agricultural development groups chosen to assess the impact of climate change on women are Battoumet and Magdiat. Located in different areas they present specific particularities and difficulties in managing agricultural resources and women’s participation.

2.2. Focus Group Discussions

In order to explore the impact of climate change on the local community particularly regarding the reduction in water resources, gender issues, and the vulnerability of women, we organized two focus groups with various members of development groups, selected using an observed guideline and participatory exercises. Each focus group included 25 participants, comprising women, men, and stakeholders from government organizations. Observation guidelines were developed for each group of respondents to document the establishment of their organizations (including the founding date and the number of women and men involved). These guidelines also aimed to explore the activities of men and women, as well as the perceived effects of climate change on: (i) vulnerability and gender dynamics, and (ii) how extreme weather events disproportionately affect men and women in rural areas. The data were recorded through field notes and subsequently transcribed.

2.3. Data Gathering

To assess rural women’s understood of climate change, its impact on their households, and their adaptation strategies, data were gathered from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected through surveys targeting a sample of 30 rural women who are members of the two agricultural development groups: 20 from the agricultural development groups of Battoumet in Souk Jdid and 10 from Magdiat in Menzel Bouzayen. A structured questionnaire was designed to identify and evaluate the adaptation strategies that rural women employ in response to climate change. The interviewees were initially asked to provide demographic details, such as age and education level. They were then asked to describe their daily activities, with a particular emphasis on the time spent collecting water, the distances traveled to access water, and how climate change has affected this crucial resource. Lastly, they were asked to share their perceptions of climate changeas well as the adaptation strategies they adopt.

Data collection was conducted between January and February 2024. Questionnaires included an informed consent section that highlighted what this study was about, stated how the information given would be used and noted the rights of the researcher to confidentiality and the protection of their privacy.

In addition to the surveys, interviews were conducted with selected local stakeholders, including representatives from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the forestry department, the ministry of agriculture, officials from the CRDA, and the director of the Rural Women Support Office. These interviews aimed to identify the various strategies adopted by governmental and non-governmental organizations to support women in rural areas (

Table 1. Governmental and non-governmental organizations’ Climate Change Strategies: Interviews.

(1) Have you implemented any projects to mitigate the impact of climate change on vulnerable populations, particularly women, in your area?

(2) What resilience measures have been implemented to help communities adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change, particularly in vulnerable regions?

(3) How does inter-administrative collaboration contribute to addressing climate change challenges, and what specific outcomes have resulted from these collaborative efforts in your area?

(4) How does collaboration with civil society organizations enhance efforts to address climate change, and what role do these partnerships play in supporting vulnerable communities, particularly women?

).

The discussions focused on understanding efforts to enhance the quality and accessibility of essential resources and services while ensuring the increased participation of women in these initiatives, thereby maximizing the benefits for rural women. The insights gathered helped to map existing support mechanisms and highlight areas for improvement in addressing gender-specific challenges in rural contexts.

2.4. Analytical Methods

The collected data were analyzed using a two-step approach to provide both a comprehensive overview and in-depth insights. First, descriptive statistics were applied to summarize and visualize the data. This included calculating measures such as mean, frequency, and percentage to explore distributions within the datasets. These analyses were conducted using Microsoft Excel. Second, a more advanced topological analysis was performed to classify and understand relationships between variables and actors [27]. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), which is a multivariate statistical method, was used to classify rural women’s vulnerability using a categorical indicators (

Table 2. Indicators for assessing the vulnerability of rural women to climate change.

Categories	Indicators	Descriptions
Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics	Age	The classification that has been provided provided helps to segment women into different age groups to better understand how water scarcity affects them differently. These age categories allow for a more nuanced analysis of their experiences, vulnerabilities, and coping mechanisms related to water issues [28]. Here is a summary of each group: -Younger Women (19–30 years); -Middle-Aged Women (31–49 years); -Older Women (50+ years);
	Education level	This variable refers to the highest level of formal schooling or vocational training attained by the women in this study. Understanding the education level of participants helps to identify potential gaps in knowledge and the need for targeted educational interventions to strengthen women’s roles in climate adaptation and mitigation [29].
Dependence on natural resource	Access to water	This variable refers to the availability and proximity of safe, clean water sources for households in the Sidi Bouzid region. This variable is critical in understanding women’s vulnerability to water scarcity, as access directly impacts daily livelihoods, health, and adaptation strategies. Limited access to water often exacerbates women’s roles in water collection and management, heightening their exposure to climate risks [29].
	Water insecurity	This variable refers to the inconsistent or unreliable availability of sufficient water for drinking, sanitation, agriculture, and other daily needs [30]
	Water collection labor	This variable describes water collection labor among women. it involves the time and physical effort spent by women and households in gathering water, often from distant or unreliable sources. It also involves participation in community decision-making related to climate adaptation [31].
Economic	Lack of income diversification	This variable refers to the limited variety of income sources available to households, particularly for women in the Sidi Bouzid region. This economic vulnerability is exacerbated in contexts of water scarcity, as reliance on a single income stream—often linked to agriculture or natural resource-based activities—leaves households highly susceptible to climate shocks. Without access to alternative livelihoods, women face increased financial insecurity and reduced capacity to adapt to the impacts of water stress, hindering their roles in climate adaptation and mitigation strategies [32].
Social	Women’s roles, and access to support	Social vulnerability in this context is shaped by the intersection of family stress, gendered roles, and limited institutional and community support. Women, particularly those in rural areas, face significant family conflicts and stress due to the burdens of water collection and the economic impacts of water scarcity [31].

). This analysis was executed using SPSS.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Analysis

3.1.1. Sociodemographic Profile of Agricultural Development Group Members

This study focuses on the operational dynamics of two agricultural development groups: Battoumet and Magdiat. Established in 2017 in the Souk Jdid region, Battoumet is a pioneering agricultural group in the area, with a mission dedicated to empowering rural women. It stands out with a predominantly female membership, comprising 60 women, who represent 80% of its members, alongside 15 men (20%) (Figure 3). This team benefits from the expertise of qualified professionals, including an agronomist engineer and a food technician, thus enhancing the technical skills of the group. The agricultural development group Magdiat is located in Menzel Bouzayen (Figure 3). Founded in 2021, this group is exclusively female, composed of about 25 members. The age distribution of agricultural development group members indicates that 72% of rural women in Magdiat are over the age of 50. In contrast, in Battoumet, the majority of women are in their most productive and reproductive years, with 18% aged 19–30 and 47% aged 31–50 (Figure 3).

According to the focus group discussion participants, 60% of the women members of the agricultural group were not able to read and write, while only 40% of them attended their education. In the Magdiat agricultural group, 80% of the women were illiterate, while 15% had completed primary education, and only 5% had attended secondary school. In contrast, in the Battoumet agricultural group, 20% of the women were illiterate. Among the remaining members, 30% were able to read and write, and 50% had completed higher education (beyond secondary level).

3.1.2. Activities by Gender

The results show that the main activities of Battoumet include the processing of local agricultural products that are needed for traditional dishes such as couscous, bsissa (a traditional Mediterranean food from roast cereals mixed with spices) and chorba (a traditional vegetable and meat soup) as well as the drying of garlic and chili peppers. According to the president’s statement, Battoumet is also involved in capacity building for its members, as well as in the various stages of the production and marketing of products. Magdiat initially focused on processing cereal products for the traditional production of “Aoula”, including items such as couscous and Mhamsa (

Table 3. Activity by gender.

Activity	Task/Responsibility of Men	Task/Responsibility of Women
Water Collection	-Generally, they do not participate in this activity.	-They bear the primary responsibility for water collection (water fetching), which is physically demanding and essential for the well-being and survival of families and communities.
Processing and sale of local products (thyme, rosemary, harissa, etc.)	-Do not participate.	-Responsible for the collection, processing, and sale of non-timber forest products within the GAEC. -They process vegetables and fruits into traditional products such as harissa, date syrup, and pomegranate syrup for Aoula.
Work on agricultural holdings	-Heads of operations: manage and plan agricultural activities, control resources, and make decisions regarding crop selection, irrigation planning, etc.	-A minority of women hold the position of head of operations. -Specific responsibility: women are primarily responsible for harvesting crops such as olives, tomatoes, and peppers, often under difficult working conditions and at very low prices.
Childcare and education	-Men make decisions regarding children’s education, but the day-to-day responsibility remains with women.	-Women are responsible for paying school fees, taking care of the sick, taking family members to the doctor, and buying medications.
Harvesting of forest products	-Do not participate in this activity.	-Have access to forests but do not control the forests or make decisions regarding them. -Responsible for harvesting non-timber forest products.

). However, to adapt to contemporary challenges such as climate change, the group is evolving to specialize in new activities, including the collection and distillation of natural aromatic and medicinal plants like rosemary and thyme.

The results of these focus groups revealed significant gender based disparities in responsibilities and opportunities (Table 3). Women occupy a crucial social and economic role, managing nearly all domestic activities, including child education, and ensuring the success of their family life. They also contribute significantly to agriculture, often under very harsh and challenging conditions, facing severe climatic challenges during the harvest of cereals and vegetables such as peppers and tomatoes. Women are involved in the transformation and packaging of these products into finished goods like “Aoula”. Despite their significant contributions and the tough working conditions, including high temperatures, women earn considerably less than men, who typically hold roles as farm managers, make critical decisions about cereals, and seek paid work in farms, road construction, or as day laborers. Women, in contrast, have limited opportunities for paid employment in the rural sector.

Additionally, 65% of the surveyed female members engage in secondary activities beyond their involvement in agricultural development groups. Many of these women work as seasonal laborers, particularly in olive harvesting, to generate supplementary income crucial for meeting their families’ needs. This additional income is vital in a context increasingly marked by climatic uncertainties, which make daily survival even more precarious.

3.1.3. Access to Water

The results show that rural women have a larger role relative to that of men in water, sanitation and hygiene activities, including in agriculture and domestic labour. They collected water from different sources. In fact, 25% of participants mainly in Battoumet agricultural group have access to water through the national water distribution network (e.g., SONEDE), highlighting a severe lack of infrastructure in these rural areas. Around 35% of the participants have access to water through private wells, a resource that has historically been crucial in the absence of public water networks. However, these individual wells are increasingly becoming unreliable due to the impacts of climate change. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and prolonged droughts are making it more difficult for these wells to maintain a steady supply of water. The water levels in wells are dropping, and the quality of water may also be compromised, as reduced rainfall and extreme weather events can lead to contamination from various sources, including agricultural runoff and inadequate sanitation facilities. This situation puts rural women in a particularly vulnerable position. Furthermore, 40% of women, especially those in the Magdiat agricultural group, reported that they do not have reliable access to water. One participant shared, “Sometimes we drink rainwater, other times water from the pond. We boil it if we can, but we don’t always have the time. This practice underscores the struggle to find safe drinking water, especially during prolonged dry periods when water levels in natural resources decrease”. The majority of respondents (79%) also reported walking over 30 min and traveling more than 6 km to collect water. This task exposes women and girls to various physical and emotional risks, as they carry heavy containers weighing approximately 8 kg, which are often inappropriate for their age and body weight. Moreover, 60% of women stated that the time spent on water collection limits the time available for education, personal development, and income-generating activities within the household. While women are primarily responsible for collecting water, men are often tasked with purchasing water from vendors who charge high prices for water delivery via tankers. This situation puts significant financial strain on households, further exacerbating their economic challenges. As one woman noted, “The high cost of buying water impacts our economic situation”.

3.2. Gender Disparities in Climate Vulnerability

Based on the focus group results, 50% of the female respondents and 70% of the male respondents agreed that women are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and variability compared to other segments of society (Figure 4). To evaluate the impact of climate change on rural women, many factors have to be considered such as their information source, their level understanding of the concept of climate change and rural women ’s perception of climate.

3.2.1. Rural Women’s Perception of Climate Change

The results show that women in the Sidi Bouzid region access to the climatic information through different sources. In fact, 40% of the surveyed women rely on inter-generational knowledge and local practices, observing natural signs such as plant behavior, water availability, increases in temperature, increases and decreases in rainfall amount and seasonal changes. Informal conversations play a significant role for 30% of women, particularly those in the Magdiat agricultural development group, where neighbors and group members exchange information and experiences (

Table 4. Rural women’s sources of climate information.

	Battoumet		Magdiat		Total
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Local practices	8	27	4	13	12	40
Neighbors and group members	3	10	6	20	9	30
Media platforms	6	20	-	-	6	20
Non governemental organizations	3	10	-	-	3	10

). Media platforms such as radio and social media remain some of the most accessible tools for disseminating weather forecasts and climate-related advisories for 20% of rural women. However, 10% of the total surveyed rural women obtain information from non-governmental organizations frequently which are engaged in raising awareness and disseminating tailored climate information, particularly to empower women in vulnerable communities.

3.2.2. Climate Change’s Impact on Rural Women

The results show that this heightened vulnerability of rural women to climate change stems from differing household-level social activity needs, challenges in accessing natural resources particularly water and limited adaptive capacity.

In fact, in the Sidi Bouzid region women bear the sole responsibility for collecting water. The results revealed that 75% of the surveyed women face significant challenges in accessing water, exacerbated by climate change. With the scarcity of water resources and decreasing precipitation, these difficulties are becoming increasingly pronounced. Women are solely responsible for water supply, as one member shared, “I am everything in one”, handling agricultural, domestic, and professional needs within the agricultural development groups. The women emphasized that the obstacles they face in accessing water have both direct and indirect impacts on their daily lives. Water scarcity and the associated challenges oftFIGUREen result in conflicts within households, with wide-ranging negative effects on family members. The time spent collecting water detracts from other vital activities, such as education, particularly for children who may miss school to help with the task. Furthermore, the burden of water collection disproportionately falls on women, increasing their stress levels and exacerbating gender inequality within the household. The unequal distribution of responsibilities related to water collection creates additional tensions, as women are often expected to bear this heavy load, leading to conflicts and dissatisfaction within the family. Moreover, women must travel long distances to fetch drinking water (Figure 5), as one respondent described: “During the dry season, less water flows downstream, and many local rivers, lakes, and canals have become contaminated due to saline intrusion and wastewater discharges, making it even more difficult to obtain clean water, we have to walk long distances, on average, 7 km to fetch drinking water. Not only is the burden of work increasing, but our health, safety, and education are also affected”. This challenge not only strains their physical well-being but also limits their opportunities for education and personal development, underscoring the profound difficulties posed by limited access to this vital resource.

Additionally, in Sidi Bouzid there is a higher use of irrigation for farming. However, climate variability is affecting the reliability of water. In total 60% of farms confirm that the water scarcity and irregularity of precipitation affect and degrade crop production, further reducing available food resources and affecting the domestic activities of rural women, which in turn impacting their income. Women are the primary managers of water resources and face increased pressure to maintain stability and well-being within their families in a context of increasingly limited resources. Women must exert additional efforts to seek alternative activities and generate necessary income, not only to purchase food but also to secure other essential needs such as healthcare, education, and shelter. However 50% of rural women reported that climate change leads to a significant deterioration in the activities within the Agricultural Development Group. In fact, water is essential for a variety of their productions, such as Aoula, harissa, couscous, and the distillation of oils from forest products. Moreover, the scarcity and increased cost of raw materials exacerbate difficulties, with high prices becoming unsustainable for women. This situation often forces them to seek alternatives or abandon certain activities, reducing their income and potentially leading to unemployment. Furthermore, the cost of water tanks, which have become a necessity for those without direct access to water, is increasingly high, exacerbating the financial difficulties of these women and reinforcing their economic vulnerability.

3.3. Analyzing Rural Women’s Vulnerability to Climate Change: The MCA Approach

Results of the MCA method showed a significant variability between the women in terms of vulnerability, with each facing distinct challenges related to water access, agriculture, and the impacts of climate change. According to the joint modality diagram graph (Figure 6), three heterogeneous groups can be noted.

3.3.1. Group1: Severely Vulnerable Women

This group consists of 60% of the female members being aged over 50 years. In total 50% of the women were not able to read and write These women, due to the lack of access to reliable water sources, have to travel long distances to reach wells or other water points (

Table 5. Comparison of groups based on vulnerability indicators.

Indicators	Group 1	Group 2	Group 3
Age
Education level
Access to water
Water collection labor (collection time)
Income diversification
Women’s access to support

). On average, these women may spend several hours per day collecting water, which reduces their available time for other activities such as agriculture or education.

These women do not engage in secondary activities outside their work within the women’s agricultural development group (Table 5). They are constrained to purchase water tanks, the cost of which continues to rise. Despite their responsibility for water collection, they claim not to face water-related difficulties and believe that climate change does not affect agricultural production, their economy (income), or social aspects such as family conflicts. However, they consider the current strategies of their group ineffective and believe that the government does not implement new strategies. For the future, they propose developing climate finance to ensure the availability of crop varieties adapted to the climatic conditions of the Sidi Bouzid region and adopting new agricultural practices.

These women are highly vulnerable due to their age, limited education, and lack of access to water. Their reliance on purchasing water tanks, exacerbated by rising costs, highlights their economic vulnerability (dependency on natural resources). Despite being responsible for water collection, they do not perceive the impact of climate change (increased Exposure to environmental challenges), possibly due to generational perspectives and limited awareness. Additionally, they face challenges related to inadequate agricultural equipment, which further impairs their productivity (vulnerability related to equipment). Their recognition of the ineffectiveness of current strategies and their suggestion to develop climate finance and adopt new agricultural practices show some awareness, though they do not fully grasp the immediate impacts of climate change.

3.3.2. Group 2: Vulnerable Women

It consists of 50% of the women being aged 31 to 49. In total 50% of the women in this group had a primary education degree (elementary) (Table 5). In addition to their activities within the agricultural development group, these women primarily hold agricultural laborer positions. Although 55% of the women use a private water source from their own well, they encounter severe supply difficulties. They are also responsible for water collection, and these difficulties have a major economic impact due to the effects of climate change on agricultural production, affecting all their activities requiring agricultural raw materials. Socially, this causes conflicts and stress within their families. This group has adopted strategies to overcome climate challenges and rates them as moderately to highly effective. They believe that the government has not implemented elaborate strategies to assist them and propose that infrastructure improvement could facilitate many aspects of their daily lives.

These women are more aware of and proactive in addressing climate-related challenges. Their educational background and secondary employment provide them with more resources and a broader perspective. However, their dependence on a private well, which faces severe supply issues, makes them vulnerable to water scarcity (increased exposure to environmental challenges). The economic and social repercussions of these difficulties are significant, leading to conflicts and stress within their families (dependency on natural resources). Additionally, the challenges of rainfed agriculture exacerbate their situation, as decreasing precipitation affects their agricultural production (rainfed agriculture challenges). Their moderate success with adaptation strategies indicates some resilience, but they still require better institutional support.

3.3.3. Group 3: Adaptive Women

This group consists 70% of the women being aged 31 to 49. In total 65% of the women in this group had high a school education degree. In addition to their membership in the agricultural development group, they have secondary activities. These women depend on public water resources mainly provided by SONEDE (Table 5) but they face difficulties, including frequent water cuts during the summer. They are responsible for water collection, which has social, economic, and agricultural production repercussions. This group has adopted practices and strategies they deem effective for adapting to and overcoming climate challenges. They believe that even though state strategies exist, there is a need to improve infrastructure and provide more training.

The youngest group is the most adaptive, despite facing significant challenges. Their reliance on public water resources, which are often unreliable, makes them vulnerable, especially during the summer (increased exposure to environmental challenges). The impact of rainfed agriculture also affects them, as climate variability threatens their crop yields (rainfed agriculture challenges). Their dependency on natural resources, coupled with frequent water cuts, places additional strain on their economic and social well-being. They also face challenges related to access to equipment, though they have been more proactive in adopting strategies to address these issues (vulnerability related to equipment). Their emphasis on the need for improved infrastructure and training reflects their forward-thinking approach.

3.4. Strategies for Coping with Climate Change

Stakeholder engagement is considered a critical component in climate change decision-making and governance at various levels, aiming to support women in rural areas and achieve equitable outcomes. In Sidi Bouzid, interviews conducted with various local stakeholders, including the National Institute of Agronomic Research of Tunisia (INRAT), the civil society (APEDDUB), the National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia (INAT), the rural women’s district in the Sidi Bouzid region as well as several officials from the ministry of agriculture, reveal a strong commitment to supporting women’s agricultural development Groups. In fact, these actors play a pivotal role in offering multidimensional support to rural women, thereby enhancing their ability to adapt to the impacts of climate change. Inter-administrative collaborations, developed through agreements to maintain critical infrastructure such as roads, enhance connectivity and market access—key factors for women navigating the challenges of climate change and economic hardship (

Table 6. Summary of strategy involving gender and climate stakeholders’ engagement.

Strategy Name	Kind of Stakeholders	Outputs and Outcomes
Implementation of international projects (TWIZA, ACESS, G3CA)	Civil society, rural women’s District, Ministry of agriculture and INRAT	-Enhancement of women’s access to climate finance. -Enhancement of market access -Increase in women’s earnings.
Use research products to build scientific credibility	INRAT, civil society	-Development of research papers, policy papers and policy briefs that have increased policymakers’ commitment to integrating gender into climate change policies and actions. -Development guidelines for gender integration in climate change strategy
Co-learning and co-production of knowledge	INRAT, INAT, ministry of agriculture	-The National Institute of Agricultural Research of Tunisia (INRAT) in collaboration with APEDDUB had already been implementing some projects (G3CA) that included gender capacity building. -Another capacity-building event was organized to deepen rural women’s understanding of the impacts of climate change and the solutions they can adopt. Development of a Best Practices Guide
Development of partenership and international alliance	SSN, WWF, Hivos, INRAT, medias, ministry of agriculture	-Building alliances, exchanging information and coordinating, with invisible stakeholder were highly influential in the implementation of an intervention

).

Simultaneously, specific projects like Twiza 3 and Axsses implement integrated approaches to support women. For instance, Twiza 3 enhances market access through fairs, while Axsses works on establishing permanent sales spaces, thereby strengthening commercial opportunities despite scarce raw materials. These initiatives receive support from the regional women’s delegation, agriculture authorities, and the Sidi Bouzid labor union, creating a conducive environment for women’s economic development. Moreover, projects such as G3CA and Reseauclima, supported by civil society (APEDDUB) and the INRAT, focus on enhancing women’s resilience to climate challenges. These projects focus on training and awareness, integrating composting techniques and water management to counter water scarcity. Water storage initiatives promote the efficient use of water resources in the face of climate variability. Grants support the construction of elevated rainwater tanks, thereby enhancing rural women’s adaptive capacity. These efforts are bolstered by inter-administrative collaborations where ministries such as those of agriculture, environment, and women work together to validate action plans that integrate environmental, agricultural, and gender perspectives (Table 6). These collaborations, enriched by civil society participation through regular consultations and participatory workshops, effectively raise awareness and mobilize stakeholders, ensuring consistent and tailored project implementation.

Furthermore, in collaboration with APEDDUB, INRAT researchers have adopted a strategy focused on high-impact publications, research, policy papers, and open access policies to strengthen researchers’ scientific credibility and facilitate science-policy engagement processes. Another key output of this partnership was the development of a Best Practices Guide, supported by the INRAT, INAT, and APEDDUB teams. This guide assisted local stakeholders in integrating gender considerations into climate action and empowered women to implement natural solutions to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

4. Discussion

These findings confirmed that climate variability poses significant political, economic, social, and moral challenges for rural communities [33]. The impact of climate change often disproportionately affects vulnerable groups, particularly women [34].

Access to climate information, women’s perceptions of climate variability, non-agricultural activities, the multifaceted roles of rural women in society (such as water collection, agricultural work, etc.); and women’s access to natural resources, particularly water, are key factors influencing the vulnerability of women to climate change. In their study, Abid et al. (2018) [34] highlighted that the vulnerability of women to climate change can be observed through their daily activities. These tasks often include finding, collecting, transporting, storing, securing, purifying, and distributing water and food for various household needs, such as drinking, cleaning, washing, sanitation, feeding families, livestock production, and crop cultivation. Additionally, women are responsible for gathering and transporting fuel (e.g., agricultural waste or wood) for heating, cooking, and drying clothes, as well as for preparing medicinal herbs and providing care for the elderly and sick. Bouchama et al. (2018) [35] further emphasize that the gender disparities in how women are affected by climate change stem from differences in access to resources and the roles traditionally assigned to women in society

Furthermore, climate change has significant social repercussions for rural women in the Sidi Bouzid region. As climate variability increases, women in this area are confronted with a growing set of challenges, including water shortages, resource conflicts, and health issues. These problems are further exacerbated by the already difficult living conditions that many rural women face. The stress generated by these climate-induced hardships takes a toll on both their physical and mental well-being, while also burdening them with additional responsibilities in managing dwindling resources. As highlighted by United Nations Women Watch (2009) [36], climate variability extends beyond being merely an environmental concern; it becomes a serious social issue, disproportionately affecting women who traditionally bear the responsibility for collecting water, managing agriculture, and ensuring the health and well-being of their families.

These social impacts are reflected in the findings of Md et al. (2022) [20], who observed that women in the villages of Atlia and Chandipur are especially vulnerable to climate change effects. In response to water shortages, they are forced to travel long distances—between 2 and 6 km—several times a day to fetch water for their livestock. This physically demanding task not only consumes much of their time but also exposes them to potential safety risks. Moreover, the daily burden of water collection limits their opportunities for income-generating activities, thereby deepening their socio-economic vulnerabilities.

The difficulties faced by these women are part of a wider trend seen in rural areas, where the roles women play in managing resources, caring for families, and working in agriculture are increasingly strained due to climate change. As climate-related pressures escalate, gendered social structures and labor divisions become more pronounced, placing women at the forefront of both the causes and consequences of climate change. These observations align with the work of Bouchama et al. (2018) [36], which underscores how climate change exacerbates gender inequalities by amplifying the existing social and economic burdens on women.

Additionally, the results highlight the significant impact of climate change on the income of rural women. The majority of respondents indicated that women’s income and overall economic conditions are severely impacted by the worsening effects of climate change. This finding aligns with the study by Chandra et al. (2017) [37], which examined the effects of climate change on rural communities, including women and youth. Their research revealed that each day of extreme high temperatures results in a 3 percent reduction in the total value of crops produced by women farmers, compared to those produced by their male counterparts. The impact of climate variability varies across different groups, as each faces distinct challenges related to water access, agricultural production, and the broader consequences of climate change, further exacerbating the vulnerabilities of rural women.

Economic, social (age), educational, and environmental factors contribute to the vulnerability of women to climate change in the Sidi Bouzid region as highlighted by United Nations Women Watch (2009) [36]. In fact, women over 60 years old, with only primary education and no access to water, are the most vulnerable. In contrast, women aged 20 to 40 with secondary education are more adaptive to the effects of climate change [38].

However, despite the observed vulnerability, significant resilience among these women to climate change has been evident through the development of various adaptation strategies. Adaptation, in fact, is not an isolated process; it relies heavily on the roles of women and the active involvement of stakeholders. Rural women in the Sidi Bouzid region have diversified their income sources by engaging in alternative economic activities such as poultry farming and artisan production, demonstrating both their resourcefulness and adaptive capacity. Despite their efforts, they still face significant challenges, including limited access to resources and markets. Initiatives like that of Battoumet, which involves collaboration with a company specializing in resilient seeds for crop development, highlight the women’s determination to find sustainable solutions [39]. These efforts emphasize the need for greater support from organizations and the incorporation of climate resilience strategies specifically tailored to the needs of rural women in Sidi Bouzid. This finding is supported by Annet et al. (2022) [40], who affirm that stakeholder engagement is considered a crucial element in climate change decision-making and governance at various levels, essential for achieving equitable outcomes.

In fact, civil society, the national institute of research and universities play a crucial role in this well-structured collaboration network to address climate challenges. These actors provide essential knowledge and resources, enriching the overall understanding of local dynamics [40]. However, to further strengthen resilience, it would be beneficial to expand these connections to other actors, such as the ministry of agriculture representative and the forest management of Sidi Bouzid, to maximize the synergies and positive impacts of climate initiatives.

Interviews with regional and national stakeholders have highlighted the efforts in inter-administrative and research collaboration and the active participation of civil society in awareness raising, consultation, and the mobilization of the stakeholders involved in the adaptation of rural women to climate change [33].

These interactions show that, while positive initiatives are in place, there are still challenges to overcome to ensure the effective participation of civil society in the planning, implementation, and monitoring of initiatives related to rural women and climate change.

5. Conclusions

This study evaluated the impact of climate change on rural women in the “Battoumet” and “Magdiat” agricultural development groups in Sidi Bouzid, as well as the adaptation strategies employed by stakeholders to mitigate its effects. A comprehensive analytical approach, combining descriptive and topological analysis through the Multiple Components Analysis (MCA) method, was utilized. The findings indicate that climate change significantly impacts women in these groups, affecting various aspects of their daily lives. Water scarcity, in particular, has been a major challenge, leading to heightened family tensions, stress, and adverse effects on both agricultural and domestic activities, which consequently reduces household incomes. Variations in droughts and precipitation further damage crops, limiting food access and heightening the economic vulnerability of women who depend on natural resources.

Despite these challenges, the women in these agricultural development groups have demonstrated resilience by diversifying their sources of income, such as engaging in poultry farming and artisan production. A wide range of stakeholders have supported these women through different strategies to bolster their resilience against climate challenges.

However, the present study primarily focused on the co-production of knowledge strategies. It is recommended that future research explore additional governmental adaptation interventions, including infrastructure development, the removal of organizational barriers, and the enhancement of extension services for rural women. Strengthening access to resources, markets, and decision-making platforms will be critical in improving the long-term resilience of rural women to climate change. Furthermore, targeted policies that address the specific needs of rural women, such as access to education, financial services, and clean water, should be prioritized to mitigate the socio-economic impacts of climate change in these communities.