Next Article in Journal
Projected Impacts of Climate and Land Use Change on Endemic Plant Distributions in a Mediterranean Island Hotspot: The Case of Evvia (Aegean, Greece)
Previous Article in Journal
Sustainability Assessment and Resource Utilization of Agro-Processing Waste in Biogas Energy Production
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Climate
Volume 13
Issue 5
10.3390/cli13050101
climate-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Influences of Climate Factors and Tree Characteristics on Carbon Storage in Longan Orchards, Thailand

by
Yaowatat Boongla
1,*,
Wanlapa Outong
2,
Thaneeya Chetiyanukornkul
3 and
Supachai Changphuek
1
1
Sustainable Development Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
2
The Highland Research and Development Institute (HRDI), Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
3
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Climate 2025, 13(5), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050101
Submission received: 30 January 2025 / Revised: 9 May 2025 / Accepted: 10 May 2025 / Published: 13 May 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This research aimed to investigate the above-ground biomass and carbon storage in the above-ground biomass of longan trees located in Lumphun and Surin Provinces. The species, tree height, and diameter at ground level were measured at the study site. The diameter-based above-ground biomass (AGB) was calculated using the allometric equation for the longan tree plantation, along with carbon storage. It was then multiplied by 0.5 to estimate the carbon storage (CS) in the AGB. In Lamphun Province, longan trees of the Edo species totaled 319 per 2.5 ha, with an average biomass of 180.06 kg, resulting in an estimated carbon storage of 1.04 Mg C/ha. In Surin Province, longan trees of the Paungtong species totaled 227 per 1.6 ha, with an average biomass of 149.63 kg and an estimated carbon storage of 0.86 Mg C/ha. Our findings show that tree characteristics such as longan tree diameter, height, and age are associated with biomass and carbon storage, and that climate variation may affect the health of longan trees and plantation productivity. Thus, this study serves as a useful guide for understanding the carbon storage of longan trees and improving longan management.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Recently, greenhouse gases (GHGs) have become a serious concern, with evident negative impacts at both national and international levels. The greenhouse effect is the process through which heat is trapped near the Earth’s surface by substances known as greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases primarily include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons. These GHGs contribute to global warming, which, in turn, influences climate change, alters weather patterns, and causes rising sea levels [1]. However, GHGs are continuing to increase due to anthropogenic activities, and this has been extensively reported in many studies. Currently, several methodologies and strategies have been developed to promote the reduction in CO2 emissions produced by human activities. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the leading United Nations body for assessing science related to climate change, plays a key role in these efforts. A series of IPCC reports, produced by some of the world’s leading scientists, suggest that limiting the global temperature rise to no more than 1.5 °C would help us avoid the worst impacts. Agricultural systems are related to both the release of and the reduction in GHGs in the atmosphere. Orchards are a major plant type in Thailand’s agricultural production system. Orchards are areas of trees and shrubs planted for food, usually fruit. Fruit tree orchards play an important role in carbon storage (CS) mechanisms, as CO2 from the atmosphere is captured through photosynthesis and stored as carbon in the tree biomass (including the stems, leaves, branches, and roots) as well as in the soil. Orchard biomass is an important source of terrestrial carbon pools for the storage of atmospheric CO2, and it is likely more substantial than previously assumed [1,2]. Nowadays, the global contribution of fruit tree orchards under agricultural land and their role as potential carbon sinks is still limited, poorly understood, and likely significantly underestimated. Carbon storage in agriculture varies depending on many tree species, tree growth, soil type, climate conditions, and environmental factors, as well as agricultural practices, particularly across different sites and land-use types. Recently, researchers have used allometric equations to compute above-ground biomass (AGB) without destroying trees [2,3]. To calculate these allometric equations, biophysical data, such as tree stem diameter at breast height (DBH) and/or tree height (H), must be measured [4,5]. Several allometric equations have been developed for fruit tree orchards; however, these equations must be used correctly for each tree species [6,7]. In general, plants store carbon in their trunks, branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, and roots [8,9]. However, the tree stem has a higher carbon ratio than other parts, as shown in several research studies [10]. AGB and CS values are influenced by many variable factors in an orchard, including tree age, DBH, and tree height [11,12,13]. Research reports on orchards include several allometric equations, and a study from Indonesia indicated that some low-commercially valued fruit trees, such as rukam (Flacourtia rukam), jamblang (Syzygium cumini), and buni (Antidesma bunius), are influenced by tree age in terms of carbon storage. These fruit tree measurements were conducted using a non-destructive method by measuring DBH and tree height. The allometric equation for biomass was 0.0509 × pD2H, where p refers to the wood density (g/cm3), D refers to the DBH (cm), and H is the tree height (m). The carbon storage of rukam (40 years old) was 58.97 tons/ha, followed by jamblang (60 years old) at 53.35 tons/ha, and buni (40 years old) at 41.55 tons/ha, respectively [14]. A study in the Philippines [15] demonstrated varying carbon sequestration potentials from 15-year-old mango (Mangifera indica Linn.), 12-year-old rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.), and 32-year-old santol (Sandoricum koetjape Merr.) in Bukidnon, the Philippines. The study determined the carbon pools (trees, understorey, litter, and soil) in three different fruit crop plantations [16,17]. The increase in AGB and carbon storage varied with DBH data for the fruit plantations [18,19]. Specific allometric equations for some fruit trees have been developed using variables such as DBH2, where DBH refers to the diameter at 1.30 m above ground level and serves as the independent variable (x). The dependent variable (y) includes the biomass of tree stems, branches, and leaves, representing the total above-ground biomass. Another common variable is D02H, where D0 refers to the diameter at ground level, and H represents the tree height [20]. However, the fruit tree structure indicated that the farmers had recently pruned the stems to encourage the growth of new shoots [18,19,20]. The AGB of fruit trees requires the proper measurement of the diameter size to avoid the overestimation of the AGB and carbon storage (CS) [20,21]. A comprehensive study based on non-destructive methods is also needed to develop area- or country-specific allometric equations, which can be used to facilitate studies in other parts of the country. As previously mentioned, we chose the diameter at ground level (D0) to calculate biomass and carbon storage for fruit species, such as longan plantations, because it allows for more accurate calculations for this plant. Thai researchers [20] developed allometric equations for durian and longan trees, with coefficients of determination (R2) of greater than 0.9346 and 0.7825, respectively. Longan trees showed a low R2 due to heavy pruning compared with durian trees. In Thailand, some studies have employed direct techniques to develop sets of allometric equations for estimating above-ground biomass in various forest types, but no specific equations have been published for orchards. There is no published allometric equation for the longan tree. Lamphun and Surin Provinces in Thailand are experiencing a serious air crisis, caused by pollution from within the cities, neighboring larger provinces, and foreign nations [22]. The main sources of pollution in this province include industrial expansion, uninspected transportation vehicles, a growing population, rapid urbanization and suburbanization, and agricultural waste burning [23]. Furthermore, the situation is exacerbated by the local environment, which consists of a mountain-rimmed basin with limited ventilation and high levels of solar irradiation, both of which contribute to the production of photochemical pollutants [24]. Based on the above, agricultural practice in Lamphun and Surin Provinces may be linked to longan trees, as farmers typically burn agricultural residuals after harvesting. This practice may impact the atmospheric environment and contribute to climate change. Carbon storage and CO2 sequestration are being considered as potential solutions for CO2 reduction. Planting native fruit species with high carbon storage potential as shade trees in agricultural systems appears to be an initial step toward ecosystem restoration. Planting age, site conditions, climatic conditions, management style, and allometric equations all have a significant impact on carbon uptake in tree biomass. Therefore, the objectives of this study were (1) to evaluate and compare the biomass and carbon storage of two longan orchards and (2) to investigate the relationship between biomass, carbon storage, and climate factors. This research aimed to provide valuable insights into carbon storage in orchards and the influence of climate factors on carbon storage. Furthermore, this study offers vital information for policymakers and agricultural managers, enabling them to make informed decisions regarding nature-based strategies for climate change mitigation. The results of this work may also contribute to a better understanding of carbon storage in orchards, as well as the socioeconomic factors and market for carbon credits.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

This research was conducted at longan tree orchards in Lamphun Province, northern Thailand, and Surin Province, northeastern Thailand. These two areas were selected because they have large plantation areas and are home to the economic species of longan in these regions. We collected physical data from two open-land farms owned by local farmers. We measured all the longan trees in the orchards. The first orchard covered an area of 2.5 ha and was located at a latitude of 18°20′37.0″ N and a longitude of 98°53′41.6″ E. The second farm was in Buached District, Surin Province, with an orchard area of 1.6 ha, located at a latitude of 14°24′48.9″ N and a longitude of 103°57′36.3″ E (Figure 1). Dimocarpus longan Lour was planted in various regions of Thailand and has many varieties, such as indigenous longan, common or native longan, and Ka-loke (commercial longan). Almost all of the Dimocarpus longan farmers planted Lour with Ka-loke due to their unique fruit shape, surface, color, and taste. Ka-loke longan also comes in a variety of forms, including E-daw longan, Phuangthong longan, Chompoo longan, and Haew longan. The study site in this work was E-daw and Phuangthong longan, and the location was 400 m (Lamphun Province) and 253 m (Surin Province) above sea level. The study area was located in a tropical and temperate climate zone because it is quite cold and windy in the dry season [25]. The performance in Lamphun Province showed a soil pH range of 5.5–8.0, with undulating slopes and a rolling terrain, where the slope ranged from 2% to 16% [26]. Sprinkler systems were applied at this site in the past, but these days, only rainfall is used for longan trees. In contrast, Surin Province showed a soil pH range of 6.0–7.0, with the area having slightly wavy to undulating slopes, with a slope range of 2% to 8% [26]. An irrigation system from a natural water system was applied at this site.

2.2. Longan Tree Sampling

The physical data were collected in 2024 on a longan tree plantation in Lamphun and Surin Provinces, Thailand- The total sampling plot was measured to evaluate the content of biomass and carbon storage [27,28]. The latitude and longitude were collected at the same time. In the tally sheet, the diameter at ground level (D0), tree height level, and species of the longan trees were recorded. A diameter tape was used to measure the diameters of the longan trees, while a fiberglass telescoping pole was used to measure the tree height. Geographic Information System (GIS) software (version 10.8) and Google Earth Pro were utilized to create research maps in this investigation. This work calculated the relevant values using Microsoft Excel.

2.3. Calculations of Above-Ground Biomass and Carbon Storage

The biomass content was calculated using allometric equations developed using the destructive technique [29,30]. The longan tree diameter at ground level (D0) was used to calculate the biomass. The D0 was determined by measuring the longan tree diameter at ground level (Figure 2). We then calculated the carbon storage using the biomass. There are numerous allometric equations for biomass depending on the characteristics of the plant. Each species is represented by a distinct equation. Species-specific allometric equations were used to estimate the longan tree biomass in Equation 1 [20]. This study measured the tree diameter at ground level (D0) instead of the diameter at breast height (DBH) for the carbon storage content because an available allometric equation for the longan tree species uses the D0. The farmer in the orchard had pruned the longan trees too low and heavily. In general, they are pruned twice a year. After pruning, the material (leaves and branches) is randomly piled at the base of the tree to decompose into fertilizer. Therefore, we chose to use the D0 for this study to avoid the influence of the branch cutting. The available allometric equation and coefficient of determination (R2) for the longan tree species were developed, showing a good R2 value of 0.7825 for the D02H, while the DBH2 showed an R2 value of 0.5396 [20]. Based on the higher R2 of the D0, the D0 was found to be more appropriate for estimating the AGB and carbon storage in longan trees. Therefore, this developed allometric equation could be used to estimate the biomass of longan trees. In addition, the carbon storage value of the longan trees was calculated using Equations 2 and 3 [31,32]. Equation 4 was used to calculate the carbon dioxide absorption [33,34], where H is the tree height (m).
For the calculation of the above-ground biomass (ABG), we used a specific allometric equation:
Wt = Ws + Wb + Wl
Wt (kg) = 1.1116 × (D02H)0.6537
Ws: the amount of biomass of the tree stored above the ground in the stem weight;
Wb: the amount of biomass of the tree stored above the ground in the branch weight;
Wl: the amount of biomass of the tree stored above the ground in the leaf weight;
Wt: the total amount of above-ground biomass;
D0: the diameter at ground level (cm).
The calculation of the below-ground biomass (BLG) was as follows: Wt × 0.27 (kg).
The calculation of the carbon storage (CS), or the carbon storage in the biomass, was as follows: 0.5 × biomass (kg), where 0.5 is the stem, and the branch biomass ratio is 0.47, otherwise called the carbon fraction of the biomass.
The calculation of the carbon dioxide absorption was as follows: (tonCO2) = 44/(12) × 12 CS (kg)

2.4. Climate Factors and Statistical Analysis

Climate factor information, such as temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall, was obtained from the Thai Meteorological Department. This study used data spanning 30 and 10 years, from 1995 to 2024, in order to observe the influences of climate factors on biomass and carbon storage (Thai Meteorological Department (TMD). The temperature data were obtained from 2006 to 2024 due to limitations in the recorded data. TMD Station ID 329201 is a station in Lamphun Province, while TMD Station ID 432201 is a station in Surin Province [35]. As mentioned above, the longan trees in Lamphun (Orchard No. 1) were 30 years old, and the longan trees in Surin Province (Orchard No. 1) were 10 years old. The descriptive statistics (average values and standard deviations (SDs)) of the climate parameters and tree characteristics were calculated, and the normal distribution assumption was tested using an independent t-test to assess the differences between the two sites. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 28. Pearson’s correlation was utilized to investigate the relationship between climate and biomass and carbon storage.

3. Results

3.1. Longan Characteristics and Biomass Contents

The tree characteristics that were considered in this study included the heights of the longan trees (H) in meters, the diameters at ground level (D0) in meters, the ages of the trees, the biomass contents, and the carbon in the longan trees (Mg C/ha). The results are presented in Table 1, which shows the total number of trees in the plantation, the tree ages, the average and standard deviation (SD) of the tree height, the average and SD of the D0, and the biomass content and carbon storage in the longan trees. It can be observed that Orchard No. 1 (Edo species) had a higher number of longan trees than Orchard No. 2 (Paungtong species). Table 1 presents the results of the diameters of all the longan trees at ground level (D0) as well as the heights of the trees. The average tree height of the longan trees in Orchard No. 1 was 4.5 m, while the average diameter of the longan trees at ground level was 99.0 cm. The average height of the longan trees in Orchard No. 2 was 4.7 m, while the average diameter of the longan trees at ground level was 88.6 cm. The results indicate that the diameters and tree heights were significantly different (p < 0.001) in the individual areas and significantly higher in Orchard No. 1 compared with Orchard No. 2. This study showed the age variation of the longan trees. The longan tree plantation in Lamphun is 30 years old, while in Surin, it is 10 years old. An increase in carbon storage with tree age resulted from a combination of the growing D0 and height in both species. Tree age is an important factor in tree height and diameter, as different tree species exhibit distinct differences in growth. Tree height and diameter influence the biomass and carbon storage in longan orchards. Furthermore, a large D0 value has implications for biomass and carbon storage. The biomass content was highest in Orchard No. 1 and lowest in Orchard No. 2. Moreover, the results indicate that the AGB and CO2 were significantly different (p < 0.001) between Orchard No. 1 and Orchard No. 2. Remarkably, the biomass content varied significantly among trees of different heights and D0 levels (Table 1). This was also due to the total number of trees in each orchard.

3.2. Longan Carbon Storage

The above-ground biomass was estimated using the allometric equation for longan trees [20]. The above-ground biomass and carbon storage were determined, with the highest quantity of carbon storage identified. The carbon storage of fruit tree plantations has attracted more attention in recent years, with research undertaken on longan, rambutan, longkong, durian, and mango. There has been little published research on the ability of longan tree plantations to store carbon. This study investigated carbon storage in a longan tree plantation, revealing that Dimocarpus longan Lour has the potential for carbon storage, as Table 1 shows. The total carbon storage and average carbon storage were 378.0 Mg C/ha, and the CO2 was 1.0 Mg C/ha, for Orchard No. 1. For Orchard No. 2, the values were 214.0 tons and 0.8 Mg C/ha, respectively. Our results show that this species contributed more to the AGB. Genes control the growth characteristics of a species, such as fast or slow growth, based on its biomass and carbon storage. In general, fruit species within the same age group may have different diameters and biomass. Abiotic factors, such as nutrients, soil, light, water, and stress tolerance, influence tree growth and development, which, in turn, correlate with the amount of carbon storage in tree biomass and carbon storage. As mentioned above, the tree diameter had a greater influence on the biomass than the tree height, because the tree heights of the longan trees in each orchard were not significantly different. According to our research, longan orchards may be an excellent source of carbon for biomass. As a result, this carbon fixation pool could help reduce atmospheric CO2. Therefore, the tree diameter and the allometric equation are important factors in calculating carbon storage for these fruit trees. Recently, Thailand’s TVER Program announced allometric equations for other fruit trees, such as rambutan, durian, and mangosteen, and also suggested using allometric equations based on the D0.

3.3. Climate Factors

Climatic changes are the result of human influences on atmospheric factors, such as those that affect the climate. These factors have been undergoing changes over the past few decades. Meteorological factor data like temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity from the meteorological department in the years 1995–2024 in the selected study areas were collected. The chosen study areas were Lamphun Province (Orchard No. 1) (TMD Station ID: 329201) and Surin Province (Orchard No. 2) (TMD Station ID: 432201) [35]. The results of this study found that the average temperature and minimum and maximum values were 27.70, 26.70, and 29.00 °C in Lamphun Province (Orchard No. 1), while Orchard No. 2 in Surin Province had values of 27.91, 27.20, and 29.30 °C, respectively (Table 2). The results of this study show that the average rainfall and minimum and maximum values were 96.60, 53.52, and 148.95 mm in Lamphun Province (Orchard No. 1), while Orchard No. 2 in Surin Province had values of 130.41, 84.09, and 205.11 mm, respectively (Table 2). The relative humidity in Lamphun Province showed average and minimum and maximum values of 72.49, 68.42, and 77.42%, respectively (Table 2). Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5 present a map illustrating the temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity, which are important climate factors. The trend increased from 2014 to 2024, and climate change was driven by adverse climatic conditions and anthropogenic activities. The data were tested for average yearly values using statistical analysis with SPSS version 28, and it revealed no significant difference between groups (p > 0.05), except for rainfall, which showed a significant difference between groups (p < 0.05) (Table 2). Variations in temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity are associated with climate change and may affect longan trees’ health and plantation productivity.

4. Discussion

The results of this study show that longan trees aged 30 years were the primary contributors to biomass and carbon storage. The amount of AGB and CS varied with tree size in the longan plantation. The AGB and CS were highest in Orchard No. 1, with observations indicating that the potential for AGB and CS varied based on the tree height, size, age, agricultural practices, and site characteristics. Despite the crucial importance of carbon storage data in this research-based study, certain data were limited. As mentioned earlier, this work focused on carbon storage in trees, but not in soil organic carbon. Thus, these findings suggest that longan tree plantations can store more carbon if suitable calculation methods are used and the trees are managed over a longer period of time. According to a similar report, tree age can affect the D0 and tree height data of longan trees [36,37,38,39,40]. They measured the D0 and tree height data in longan orchards located in Chonburi and Chiang Mai, Thailand. The study aimed to investigate the age variation of longan trees. The longan tree height and age in Chiang Mai were 6.09 m and 30 years old. The D0 value (31.91 cm) was similar to that obtained in our study. The D0 value at 25 years old (27.33 cm) was lower than that at 30 years old, but there was no difference in the tree height. The D0 value at 41 years in Chantaburi Province was 55.32 cm, with a tree height of 7.6 m, followed by 19, 15, 10, 7, and 3 years, with D0 values of 32.87, 22.88, 16.31, 14.45, and 5.43 cm and tree heights of 7.61, 7.27, 6.01, 4.75, 3.28, and 1.6 m, respectively [20]. Tree age is an important factor in tree height and diameter, as different fruit tree species exhibit distinct differences in tree diameter. The biomass and CS values increased from small to large D0 classes. The range of carbon storage was 0.94–4.93 Mg C/ha for Chantaburi Province and 0.16–2.84 Mg C/ha for Chiang Mai [20]. Indeed, the largest D0 class (diameter > 30 cm) showed the highest values for biomass and CS. The biomass and CS of the 30 cm D0 class were found to be 1–2 times higher than those of the smaller classes. This was perhaps due to the increasing wood density of the stems and primary branches with age, as well as the large, generally constant density of secondary branch wood [41]. The CS value in the Surin site was different from those in Lamphun, Chonburi, and Chiang Mai Provinces, predominantly in the D0 values, and may relate to the ages, species, and total number of trees [41,42,43]. For instance, climate change may also affect the potential geographical cultivation areas for longan [44]. As the results show, the mean relative humidity and mean temperature in Surin and Lamphun Provinces were similar, with only slight differences in rainfall (Table 2). These factors could impact the potential growing areas for longan. Longan orchard systems store unusually substantial amounts of carbon compared with other upland agricultural systems. Nan Province, Thailand, has transitioned from corn cultivation to the use of three forest types and four benefit concepts to assess carbon storage. Longan is one of the fruit species that showed high potential for carbon storage (37.10 Mg C/ha). Even though this work used different allometric equations from our study, it appears that orchards have an impact on carbon storage [45,46]. Other fruit trees, such as mangoes and citrus, were studied in Eastern Uganda, where the average height of mangoes (6.46 m) was found to be 49% higher than that of citrus (4.32 m). In contrast, the average DBH of citrus was 9.47 cm, while mangoes had an average DBH of 13.49 cm. This indicates that mangoes had a 42% greater potential than citrus. Regarding carbon storage, citrus fruit trees stored an average of 13.52 Mg C/ha, while mangoes stored an average of 74.57 Mg C/ha [47]. Their results also highlighted that the tree species, DBH, height, and farm management practices are relevant. In addition, the carbon storage in citrus orchards from six areas in Pakistan was reported. The diameter of the citrus trees ranged from 10.67 cm to 13.97 cm, and the height of the citrus trees ranged from 3.13 m to 4.03 m. The diameter and height of the citrus trees were not significantly different (p > 0.05). The total biomass content of the citrus trees ranged from 14.55 Mg C/ha to 21.43 Mg C/ha, with a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05). The carbon storage in the citrus trees ranged from 6.98 Mg C/ha to 10.28 Mg C/ha. The age of the citrus trees ranged from 4 to 18 years across the selected sites. These findings indicate that the carbon storage varied across sites due to differences in tree age, tree characteristics, and farm management practices [48]. The researcher estimated the carbon storage in Litchi chinensis in a hotspot area of Bangladesh. The results showed that the mean values of the tree DBH and height were 44.97 cm and 7.76 m, respectively, for trees aged 10 to 40 years. The above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, total biomass, and total carbon of the Litchi chinensis trees were 136.96 kg/tree, 707.04 kg/tree, and 20.54 kg/tree; 106.0 kg/tree, 157.51 kg/tree, and 813.10 kg/tree; 78.75 kg/tree; and 406.55 kg/tree for trees aged 10 to 40 years, respectively. The biomass and carbon storage showed a higher potential in 40-year-old trees than in 10-year-old trees. The total carbon storage in Litchi chinensis indicated 0.08 Mg C/tree and 0.63 Mg C/ha in 10-year-old orchards, and 0.41 Mg C/tree and 24.46 Mg C/ha in 40-year-old orchards. The statistical analysis conducted in this study found that the biomass and carbon storage varied significantly (p ≤ 0.05) [45]. Many types of fruit orchards have demonstrated their potential for carbon storage and play a vital role in reducing CO2 in the atmosphere [49,50,51]. Most of the observed fruit trees showed that the biomass contents in different trees varied with age and tree growth [52,53]. Climate change may also affect the potential geographical cultivation areas for longan, as mentioned earlier [44]. For instance, increased temperatures can cause heat stress and reduce yields in longan crops, while changes in precipitation patterns may lead to droughts or floods, both of which are detrimental to plantation productivity [4]. Humidity influences the rate of transpiration in longan trees, which, in turn, affects their water stress levels and overall growth. Our results indicate that longan tree age, tree size, and site characteristics are related to biomass and carbon storage. The studied fruit trees are suitable for planting based on their natural habitat, tree characteristics, and agricultural management practices [54,55,56]. Our results on the biomass and carbon storage in the longan tree plantation were comparable to those on other fruit orchards. As discussed above, different species have varying biophysical characteristics and growth health, with tree diameter and tree height being the two main influences [57]. The recommendations from this study will benefit longan orchard owners by expanding their future opportunities. The findings suggest that longan plantations, like other orchards and agricultural sectors, can participate in voluntary carbon credit projects, serving as a significant source of carbon storage in above-ground biomass. As a result, longan orchard systems have the potential to play a significant role in climate change mitigation because they are economical fruit trees and have large plantations in Thailand’s agricultural sector. The allometric equations in this study will support the quantification of carbon storage in longan orchards, with the goal of generating carbon storage for future climate change mitigation.

5. Conclusions

The present study investigated biomass, carbon storage, and their relationship with temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity in agricultural systems within Lamphun and Surin Provinces. Each longan orchard exhibited distinct carbon storage levels, with longan plantations in Lamphun showing the highest potential, followed by those in Surin Province. The correlations between biomass, carbon storage, and climate factors indicated that these climate factors may influence biomass and carbon in longan orchards. The discussion revealed the contribution of tree size, age, and management practices to the differences in carbon storage across varying climate conditions. Therefore, tree size alone is not the sole factor responsible for the differences in carbon storage potential in longan orchards. This study revealed that Longan trees are an important source of carbon pools in orchards. Longan trees may serve as alternative fruit trees for biomass and carbon storage in future mitigation efforts. The above findings enable us to better understand and predict the carbon storage potential of longan trees based on measuring diameter using the D0 method, which can produce reliable outcomes for biomass and carbon storage. Other factors, including soil series, soil properties, and management practices, also made significant contributions and require further research. However, more information is needed on the carbon storage of this species in other regions of Thailand to facilitate comparisons. This study requires further research to determine the soil composition, soil organic matter, soil organic carbon, and orchard management practices (such as fuels and fertilizers). In the long term, longan plantations could have greater potential for carbon storage compared with other orchard systems, as they are economical fruit trees and are extensively planted. This study primarily focused on assessing the potential for longan tree carbon storage. Conducting further research on soil organic carbon and carbon dynamics within longan plantations, as well as other orchard systems, would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of their role in the regional carbon cycle. This work referred to Thailand’s TVER Program, specifically T-VER-S-METH-13-06 (Carbon Sequestration and Reducing Emissions for Perennial Crop Plantations), for the tree sampling (T-VER-S-TOOL-01-01) and the allometric equation from the citation. However, to account for the carbon credit, more information on soil organic carbon is needed, as recommended by T-VER-S-TOOL-01-02 for the agriculture sector. Longan plantations could contribute to offsetting carbon emissions from other sectors, supporting the achievement of carbon neutrality in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Author Contributions

Y.B.: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data analysis, data accuracy, visualization, funding acquisition, original draft preparation, writing—review and editing. W.O.: investigation, data accuracy, and writing—review and editing. T.C.: investigation and writing—review and editing. S.C.: map creation and writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors are grateful to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University (contract no. SciGR 15/2567).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the local community and farmers for their kind support during the experiments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Saha, C.; Mahood, H.; Nayan, S.S.N.; Siddique, M.R.H.; Rubaiot Abdullah, S.M.; Zahirul Islam, S.M.; Iqbal, M.Z.; Akhter, M. Allometric biomass models for the most abundant fruit tree species of Bangladesh: A Non-destructive ap-proach. Environ. Chall. 2021, 3, 100047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Mahmood, H.; Siddique, M.R.H.; Islam, S.M.Z.; Abdullah, S.M.R.; Matieu, H.; Iqbal, M.Z.; Akhter, M. Applicability of semi-destructive method to derive allometric model for estimating aboveground biomass and carbon storage in the Hill zone of Bangladesh. J. For. Res. 2020, 31, 1235–1245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Dao, A.; Bationo, B.A.; Traore, S.; Bognounou, F.; Thiombian, A. Using allometric models to estimate aboveground biomass and predict carbon storages of mango (Mangifera indica L.) parklands in the Sudanian zone of Burkina Faso. Environ. Chall. 2021, 3, 100051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Wu, T.; Wang, Y.; Yu, C.; Chiarawip, R.; Zhang, X.; Han, Z.; Wu, L. Carbon Sequestration by Fruit Trees—Chinese Apple orchards as an example. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e38883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Liguori, G.; Gugliuzza, G.; Inglese, P. Evaluating carbon fluxes in orange orchards in relation to planting density. J. Agric. Sci. 2009, 147, 637–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Nguyen-Duy, N.; Talsma, T.; Nguyen, K.T.; Nguyen, T.Q.; Laderach, P. Carbon Assessment for Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Cropping Systems in Lampung, Indonesia; Research Report; International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Asia Regional Office (CIAT): Hanoi, Vietnam, 2018; p. 32. [Google Scholar]
  7. Mehta, L.C.; Singh, J.; Chauhan, P.S.; Singh, B.; Manhas, R.K. Biomass accumulation and carbon atorage in six-year-old Citrus Reticulata Blanco plantation. Indian. For. 2016, 142, 563–568. [Google Scholar]
  8. Wu, B.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Lin, X.; Wu, Y.; Wang, J.; Wu, S.; He, Y. Urbanization promotes carbon storage or not? The evidence during the rapid process of China. J. Environ. Manag. 2024, 359, 121061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Kalita, R.M.; Das, A.K.; Seleshi, G.W.; Nath, A.J. Ecosystem carbon storages in different aged tea agroforestry systems: Implications for regional ecosystem management. Trop. Ecol. 2020, 61, 203–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Segura, M. Allometric Models for Tree Volume and Total Aboveground Biomass in a Tropical Humid Forest in Costa Rica1. Biotropica 2005, 37, 2–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Hammad, H.M.; Mauman, H.M.F.; Abbas, F.; Ahmad, A.; Bakhar, H.F.; Saeed, S.; Shah, G.M.; Ahmad, A.; Cerda, A. Carbon sequestration potential and soil characteristics of various land use systems in arid region. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 264, 110254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. TGO. Thailand Voluntary Emission Reduction Program. 2015. [Internet]. Available online: https://ghgreduction.tgo.or.th/en/ (accessed on 25 July 2023).
  13. TGO. Thailand Voluntary Emission Reduction Program Reference Manual: Forestry and Agriculture Sector. 2016. Available online: http://www.tgo.or.th/2020/index.php/th/post/ (accessed on 8 September 2023).
  14. Yulistyarini, T.; Hadiah, J.T. Carbon storage potential of Indonesian local fruit trees, some collections of Purwodadi Botanic Garden. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2022, 976, 12057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Janiola, M.D.C.; Marin, R.A. Carbon sequestration potential of fruit tree plantations in Southern Philippines. J. Bio. Environ. Sci. 2016, 8, 164–174. [Google Scholar]
  16. Kuyah, S.; Muturi, C.; Wakaba, N.; Cyamweshi, A.R.; Kiprotich, P.; Mukuralinda, L. Allometric equations and carbon sequestration potential of mango (Mangifera indica) and avocado (Persea americana) in Kenya. Tree For. People 2024, 15, 100467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Nak, S.K.; Sarkar, P.K.; Das, B.; Singh, A.K.; Bhatt, B.P. Biomass production and carbon storages estimate in mango orchards of hot and sub-humid climate in eastern region, India. Carbon. Manag. 2019, 10, 477–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Zsogon, A.; Peres, L.E.P.; Xiao, Y.; Yan, J.; Fernie, S.R. Enhancing crop diversity for food security in the face of climate uncertainty. Plant J. 2022, 109, 402–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Sahoo, U.K.; Nath, A.J.; Lalnunpuii, K. Biomass estimation models, biomass storage and ecosystem carbon storage in sweet orange orchards: Implications for land use management. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2021, 41, 57–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Sapit, D.; Narithorn, J.; Patthra, P.; Jenjira, C.; Pattama, S.; Suwachana, S.; Aphisit, O.; Busakorn, P. Related Factor Project Evaluation with Carbon Storage Potential in Agricultural Practices; Final Report; Kasetsart University: Bangkok, Thailand, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  21. Motaharfard, E.; Mahdavi, A.; Iranmanesh, Y.; Jafarzadeh, A.A.; Manhas, R.K. Effect of land Uses on aboveground biomass and carbon pools in Zagros Forests, Iran. Ecopersia 2019, 7, 105–114. [Google Scholar]
  22. Kraisitnitikul, P.; Thepnuan, D.; Chansuebsri, S.; Yabueng, N.; Wiriya, W.; Saksakulkrai, S.; Shi, Z.; Chantara, S. Contrasting compositions of PM2.5 in Northern Thailand during La Niña (2017) and El Niño (2019) years. J. Environ. Sci. 2024, 135, 585–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Amnuaylojaroen, T.; Inkom, J. Long range transport of Southeast Asia PM2.5 pollutions to northern Thailand during high bi-omass burning episode. Sustainability 2020, 12, 10049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Amnuaylojaroen, T.; Kaewkanchanawong, P.; Panpeng, P. Distribution and meteorological control of PM2.5 and Its effect on visibility in Northern Thailand. Atmosphere 2020, 14, 538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Administrative of the Governor of the Lamphun Province. Topography and Climate. 2023. Available online: https://www.lamphun.go.th/public/th (accessed on 25 July 2023).
  26. Soil Resources Survey and Research Division, Land Development Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 2025. Available online: http://www1.ldd.go.th/ldd_en/ (accessed on 14 March 2025).
  27. Ogawa, H.; Yoda, K.; Kira, T. A preliminary survey on the vegetation of Thailand. Nat. Life SE Asia 1965, 1, 21–157. [Google Scholar]
  28. Duangsathaporn, K.; Sangram, N.; Omule, Y.; Prasomsin, P.; Palakit, K.; Lumyai, P. formulating equations for estimating forest stand carbon storage for various tree species groups in Northern Thailand. Forests 2023, 14, 1584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Singkran, N. Carbon sink capacity of public parks and carbon sequestration efficiency improvements in a dense urban land-scape. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2022, 194, 750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Amoatey, P.; Sulaiman, H. Quantifying carbon storage potential of urban plantations and landscapes in Muscat, Oman. En-viron. Dev. Sustain. 2020, 22, 7969–7987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Haghdoost, N.; Akbarinia, M.; Hosseini, S.M. Land-use change and carbon storages: A case study, Noor County, Iran. J. For. Res. 2013, 24, 461–469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Chapter 4 Forest land. In IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories; Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES): Kanagawa, Japan, 2006; pp. 1–83. [Google Scholar]
  33. Girma, A.; Soromessa, T.; Bekele, T. Forest carbon storages in woody plants of Mount Zequalla Monastery and it’s variation along altitudinal gradient: Implication of managing forests for climate change mitigation. Sci. Technol. Arts Res. J. 2014, 3, 132–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Ounkerd, K.; Sunthornhao, P.; Puangchit, L. Valuation of carbon storage in trees at Khao Wong community forest, Chaiya-phum province. TJM. 2016, 34, 29–38. (In Thai) [Google Scholar]
  35. Thai Meteorological Department, of Digital Economy and Society. 2024. Available online: https://www.tmd.go.th/ (accessed on 14 December 2024).
  36. Iglesias, D.J.; Quinones, A.; Font, A.; Martínez-Alcántara, B.; Forner-Giner, M.A.; Legaz, F.; Primo-Millo, E. Carbon balance of citrus plantations in Eastern Spain. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2013, 171, 103–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Dhiman, N.; Chandel, J.S.; Verma, P. Effect of planting density on growth, yield and fruit quality of apple cv. Jeromine. J. Hill Agric. 2018, 9, 289–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Davivongs, W.; Rifwidodo, S.D. Bangkok’s existing mixed fruit orchards are tree diversity hotspots for city greening. Urban. Ecosyst. 2023, 26, 991–1005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Panumonwatee, G.; Pampasit, S. Carbon Storage Evaluation of restoring in degraded areas by corn cultivation using 3 forests, 4 benefits, Nan Province. ARST 2023, 22, 2773–9376. (In Thai) [Google Scholar]
  40. Puangchit, L.; Pranchai, O. Carbon Sequestration Potential of Monoculture and Mixed Fruit. Orchards in Eastern Thailand. Final Report for Biodiversity-Based Economy Development Office (Public Organization). 2018. Available online: https://explore.nrct.go.th/search_detail/result/9327 (accessed on 1 October 2024). (In Thai).
  41. Ganeshamurthy, A.N.; Rupa, T.R.; Alivelu, K.; Reddy, A.B. A biomass estimation model for nondestructive estimation of guava tree biomass. Res. Sq. 2022, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Yulizah, N.; Rahajoe, J.S.; Jakalalana, S.; Oksari, A.A.; Yuliani, N. The estimated carbon stored in underutilized fruit trees (UFTs) collection of Cibodas and Cibinong Botanic Gardens. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2023, 1271, 12034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Yulia, I.T.; Permatasari, D.P.; Igustita, I.; Berlin, G.E.; Safira, R.N.; Sukiyarto, S.; Nazar, I.A.; Himawan, W.; Sunarto, S.; Pradhan, P.; et al. Assessing the suitability of tree species for urban green space in a tropical university campus in Surakarta, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 2023, 24, 1713–1723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Chavan, B.; Rasal, G. Total Sequestered Carbon storage of Mangifera indica. J. Earth Environ. Sci. 2012, 2, 36–49. [Google Scholar]
  45. Tisnadjaja, D.; Saliman, E.; Silvia, S.; Silimanjuntak, P. Study of burahol (Stelechocarpus burahol (Blume) Hook & Thomson) as an antioxidative compounds containing fruit. Biodiversitas 2006, 7, 199–202. [Google Scholar]
  46. Murali, V.; Gowthami, P.; Prashanth, K.A.; Gajanand, P. Carbon sequestration potential of different mango cultivars in the tropical hot and semi-arid climate of Deccan Plateau, India. Pharma Innov. J. 2022, 11, 441–445. [Google Scholar]
  47. Rahman, M.M. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research and Studies. Int. J. Adv. Multidisc. Res. Stud. 2022, 2, 908–912. [Google Scholar]
  48. Rathore, A.C.; Mehta, H.; Sharma, N.K. Performance of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) based agri-horticultural land uses in rainfed condition on degraded lands in North Western Himalayas India. Agroforest Syst. 2020, 94, 2225–2236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Wambede, M.N.; Akello, G.; Rodrigo-Comino, J.; Lugumira, J.S.; Barasa, B.; Amwonya, D.; Mulabbi, A. Carbon Sequestration of Fruit Trees under Contrasting Management Regimes. Indones. J. Geogr. 2022, 5, 420–427. Available online: https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/ijg (accessed on 14 January 2025). [CrossRef]
  50. Yasin, G.; Farrakh Nawaz, M.; Zubair, M.; Qadir, I.; Saleem, A.R.; Ijaz, M.; Gul, S.; Amjad Bashir, M.; Rehim, A.; Rahman, S.U. Assessing the Contribution of Citrus Orchards in Climate Change Mitigation through Carbon Sequestration in Sargodha District, Pakistan. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Lucas, L.E.; Senciales-González, J.M.; Rodrigo-Comino, J. Analysing the evidence of the effects of climate change, air pollutants, and occupational factors in the appearance of Cataracts. Environments 2024, 11, 87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Scandellari, F.; Caruso, G.; Liguori, G.; Meggio, F.; Palese, A.M.; Zanotelli, D.; Celano, G.; Gucci, R.; Inglese, P.; Pitacco, A.; et al. A survey of carbon sequestration potential of orchards and vineyards in Italy. Eur. J. Hortic. Sci. 2016, 81, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Talukder, M.S.; Miah, M.M.U.; Miah, M.G.; Haque, M.M.; Rahman, M.M.; Islam, M.M. Fruit tree-based agroforestry systems and their carbon sequestration potentials in different ecosystem of Bangladesh. J. Agrofor. Environ. 2019, 13, 43–48. [Google Scholar]
  54. Lukac, M. Opportunities for carbon sequestration in intensive soft fruit production systems. Acta Hort. Regiotec. 2022, 25, 107–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Johnson, J.M.-F.; Franzluebbers, A.J.; Weyers, S.L.; Reicosky, D.C. Agricultural opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Environ. Pollut. 2007, 150, 107–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Soil Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Land Use Planning for Lamphun Province 2020. Available online: http://www1.ldd.go.th/ldd_en/ (accessed on 1 October 2024).
  57. Williams, D.R.; Phalan, B.; Feniuk, C.; Green, R.R.; Balmford, A. Carbon storage and land-use strategies in agricultural landscapes across three Continent. Curr. Biol. 2018, 28, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Climate 13 00101 g001
Figure 1. The map shows the study area and the orchard site.
Figure 1. The map shows the study area and the orchard site.
Climate 13 00101 g001
Climate 13 00101 g002
Figure 2. Diameter at ground level measurement (D0).
Figure 2. Diameter at ground level measurement (D0).
Climate 13 00101 g002
Climate 13 00101 g003
Figure 3. Temperature (°C) changes at longan tree site from 2006 to 2024 (TMD Station IDs: 329201 and 432201).
Figure 3. Temperature (°C) changes at longan tree site from 2006 to 2024 (TMD Station IDs: 329201 and 432201).
Climate 13 00101 g003
Climate 13 00101 g004
Figure 4. Rainfall (mm) at longan tree site from 1995 to 2024 (TMD Station IDs: 329201 and 432201).
Figure 4. Rainfall (mm) at longan tree site from 1995 to 2024 (TMD Station IDs: 329201 and 432201).
Climate 13 00101 g004
Climate 13 00101 g005
Figure 5. Relative humidity (%) change at longan tree site from 1995 to 2024 (TMD Station IDs: 329201 and 432201).
Figure 5. Relative humidity (%) change at longan tree site from 1995 to 2024 (TMD Station IDs: 329201 and 432201).
Climate 13 00101 g005
Table 1. Longan characteristics, biomass, and carbon storage.
Table 1. Longan characteristics, biomass, and carbon storage.
OrchardTree No.Age (Year)D0
(cm)		Height (m)AGB
(kg)		BLG
(kg)		Biomass
(kg)		CO2
(kg)		CO2
(Mg C/ha)
Orchard 1
Average 99.04.5283.5576.5180.01038.61.0
SD 14.401.32204.4955.21129.85750.090.75
Total3193036,035.11645.8103,213.427,867.665,540.5378,079.6378.0
Orchard2
Average 86.64.7235.6463.62149.6863.20.8
SD 7.041.09107.4629.0268.24394.890.39
Total2271021,495.01178.058439.415,778.637,109.021,4075.3214.0
Note: Total diameter at ground level (D0), height (H), above-ground biomass (AGB), and carbon storage in CO2 absorption form.
Table 2. Climate factors of Orchard No. 1 (Lamphun Province) and Orchard No. 2 (Surin Province).
Table 2. Climate factors of Orchard No. 1 (Lamphun Province) and Orchard No. 2 (Surin Province).
ClimateOrchard 1Orchard 2tp
Avg.Min.Max.SDAvg.Min.Max.SD
Temperature (°C)27.7026.7029.000.6127.9127.2029.300.48−1.1420.261
Rainfall (mm)96.6053.52148.9521.23130.4184.09205.1123.25−5880<0.001
Relative humidity (%)72.4968.4277.422.2772.6869.5075.421.48−0.3830.703
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Boongla, Y.; Outong, W.; Chetiyanukornkul, T.; Changphuek, S. Influences of Climate Factors and Tree Characteristics on Carbon Storage in Longan Orchards, Thailand. Climate 2025, 13, 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050101

AMA Style

Boongla Y, Outong W, Chetiyanukornkul T, Changphuek S. Influences of Climate Factors and Tree Characteristics on Carbon Storage in Longan Orchards, Thailand. Climate. 2025; 13(5):101. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050101

Chicago/Turabian Style

Boongla, Yaowatat, Wanlapa Outong, Thaneeya Chetiyanukornkul, and Supachai Changphuek. 2025. "Influences of Climate Factors and Tree Characteristics on Carbon Storage in Longan Orchards, Thailand" Climate 13, no. 5: 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050101

APA Style

Boongla, Y., Outong, W., Chetiyanukornkul, T., & Changphuek, S. (2025). Influences of Climate Factors and Tree Characteristics on Carbon Storage in Longan Orchards, Thailand. Climate, 13(5), 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050101

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop