Health and Environmental Hazards of the Toxic Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Bracken Fern)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Health and Environmental Hazards
1.2. Cultural Significance and Culinary Applications
1.3. Cooking Techniques and Safety Considerations
1.4. Comprehensive Review Approach
2. Botanical Aspects of the Plant
2.1. Taxonomic Complexity: The Diverse Subspecies of P. aquilinum
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Aquilinum;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Wightianum;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Capense;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Centrali-africanum;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Latiusculum;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Occidentale;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Pubescens;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Aquiliniforme;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Pteridium;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Caudatum;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Pseudocaudatum;
- Pteridium aquilinum subsp. Pinetorum.
2.2. Morphological Features and Global Distribution
2.3. Ecological Significance and Mycorrhizal Associations
3. Chemical Composition
Phytochemical Group | Main Active Compounds | Occurrence in Plant Parts | Range of Values | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Illudane glycosides | Ptaquiloside | All parts | 0–<13 (up to 37) mg/g | [1,20,75] |
Isoptaquiloside | Fronds | unquantified | [76,77] | |
Caudatoside | Fronds | 0–0.55 mg/g | [76,77] | |
Cyanogenic glycosides | Prunasin | Fronds, Rhizomes, Rachis | 10.4–61.3 mg/g | [66,79] |
Flavonoids | Quercetin | Fronds, Rhizomes | 0.57–0.86 mg/g | [48,62,80,81] |
Kaempferol | Fronds, Rhizomes | 1.1–2.55 mg/g | [18,48,62,82] | |
Antithiamine compounds | Thiaminases types 1 and 2 | Fronds, Rhizomes | 3.1 and 3.5 µg thiamine destroyed/g plant material/hour | [18,46,83] |
Astragalin | Fronds, Rhizomes | 0–0.21 µg/g | [69,81,84] | |
Caffeic acid | Fronds | unquantified | [69,85] | |
Isoquercetin | Fronds | unquantified | [69,81] | |
Steroid compounds | α- and β-ecdysones | Fronds | unquantified | [78,86] |
4. Pharmacological Activity and Toxicity
4.1. Antimicrobial Potency: In Vitro Studies
4.2. Antioxidant Properties: In Vitro Insights and Prospects for In Vivo Exploration
4.3. Immunomodulatory and Anticancer Potential: Insights into Cellular Responses and Therapeutic Prospects
4.4. Ptaquiloside: Carcinogenic Properties and Metabolic Fate
4.5. Thiaminase, Caffeic Acid, and Cyanogenic Glycosides: Assessing Bracken Fern’s Metabolic Challenges in Animals
4.6. Ptaquiloside Accumulation and Health Risks: Impact on Animals and the Food Chain
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Malík, M.; Mika, O.J.; Navrátilová, Z.; Killi, U.K.; Tlustoš, P.; Patočka, J. Health and Environmental Hazards of the Toxic Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Bracken Fern). Plants 2024, 13, 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13010018
Malík M, Mika OJ, Navrátilová Z, Killi UK, Tlustoš P, Patočka J. Health and Environmental Hazards of the Toxic Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Bracken Fern). Plants. 2024; 13(1):18. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13010018
Chicago/Turabian StyleMalík, Matěj, Otakar Jiří Mika, Zdeňka Navrátilová, Uday Kumar Killi, Pavel Tlustoš, and Jiří Patočka. 2024. "Health and Environmental Hazards of the Toxic Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Bracken Fern)" Plants 13, no. 1: 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13010018