Advances and Perspectives for Polyploidy Breeding in Orchids
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Polyploidy Breeding in Orchids
3. Chromosomal Pathways for Meiotic Polyploidization
4. Synapsis, Chromosome Segregation and Meiotic Non-Reduction
5. Cytokinesis, Heat Shock and Polyploidy
6. Recombination, Heat Shock and Polyploidy
7. Polyploidization and Recombination
8. Post-Polyploid Diploidization in Orchids
9. Induction of Polyploidy on Meiocytes
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Term | Description |
---|---|
Aneuploidy | Loss or gain of chromosomes relative to the normal chromosome complement [17] |
Allopolyploid | Organism that combines two genomes or more deriving from related species [18] |
Autotetraploid | A tetraploid plant formed directly from the merger of two unreduced gametes provided by the same diploid individual and formed via FDR [18] |
Allotetraploid | A tetraploid formed from the merger of two unreduced gametes provided by different diploid plants and formed by FDR [18] |
Amphihaploid | A haploid derived from unbalanced meiotic segregation in a hybrid [19] |
Autopolyploid | Organism that combines two genomes or more deriving from the same species [18] |
Bivalent | Pair of homologs physically linked at the end of metaphase I [18] |
Centric fission | The break within the centromere of a single chromosome producing two whose raw ends can fuse after replication. Telomeric sequences may be added to the termini and two stable chromosomes are formed. Fission increases chromosome number and karyotype symmetry [20] |
Chiasmata | The physical manifestation of reciprocal exchanges of DNA between non-sister chromatids (e.g., crossovers). Chiasmata maintain pairs of homologs linked at the end of metaphase I (as bivalents). At least one is required per bivalent to obtain well-balanced gametes and avoid aneuploidy [18] |
Chromosomal Inversion | A structural change in chromosomes formed when two breaks are caused and the segment between them realigns and rejoins in the opposite orientation. To enable effective pairing in meiosis an inversion loop is formed. If a chiasma is formed within the loop the chromatids will form a dicentric bridge and an acentric fragment that is lost [18]. |
Cytokinesis | Also known as cytoplasm division. It is the formation of a cell wall in plant cells at the telophase stage. Cellular organelles such as mitochondria are partitioned between the new daughter cells [18]. |
Descending dysploidy | Evolutionary decrease in the base chromosome number (x). Also called polyploid drop and viewed as the mechanism that turns polyploids into functional diploids [21] |
Dyad | A pair of cells instead of the usual four cells resulting from abnormal meiosis [4] |
First Division Restitution (FDR) | A process in which a plant gamete is formed due to a defect in meiosis I. In these gametes there is neither recombination nor disjunction, thus parental heterozygosity is fully retained [19]. |
Fractionation | The loss of one or the other copy of a newly duplicated gene [22] |
Gene Dosage | Relative expression of a gene product [18]. Polyploids avoid imbalances in gene dosage by retaining duplicates and allowing them to eventually develop new functions [23]. |
Genome Dominance | A process antagonistic to heterosis in which a subgenome gains relevance through dosage and functionalization and that may involve changes in chromatin marks and expression [23]. |
Heterosis | The unevolved retention of genes or cis regulatory elements as homoeologous pairs, it is antagonistic to dominance [23]. It is linked to vigor in wide hybrids and allopolyploids. It may manifest as the acceleration of somatic growth including the enlargement of organs [23]. |
Homoeologous | Non-homologous, often used to refer to meiotic pairing between non-homologous chromosomes. Homoeologous pairing reduces fertility [18]. |
Homologous Recombination | Exchange of DNA sequences with the same linear arrangement of genes between a paternal and maternal chromosome copy, also called a homologous pair [24]. |
Karyotype | Chromosome complement of an individual plant or species as described by number and morphology [4] |
Micronuclei | Aberrant nuclei formed by the unequal distribution of chromosomes in daughter cells, often caused by unpaired chromosomes and common in tumor cell lines and meiotic cells of orchid hybrids [16,18]. |
Multivalent | Association during meiosis of more than two chromosomes whose homologous regions are synapsed by pairs [4]. Multivalent formation is detrimental to meiotic chromosome segregation and reduces fertility [18]. |
Ploidy | The basic chromosome set, often defined as ’x’. Thus, 2 x indicates that the organism has two basic sets of chromosomes. It is different from the number of chromosomes in zygotic cells defined as ’n´. For instance, bread wheat is a hexaploid in which 2n = 6x = 42, where x = 7 [18]. |
Polyhaploid | Haploid individual resulting from polyploid parents [4] |
Post-Polyploid Diploidization (PPD) | A process of evolutionary modifications that transform a polyploid genome into a quasi-diploid one. It is mediated by homoeologous recombination leading to structural chromosomal changes including reduction of chromosome number [21]. |
Robertsonian Fusion | The fusion of two non-homologous chromosomes that gives rise to single chromosome with a single centromere [18,20]. As a result, the chromosome number is reduced, and the karyotype symmetry is increased [20]. |
Second Division Restitution (SDR) | A process in which a plant gamete is formed due to a defect in meiosis II. The exclusive separation of recombined homologs causes the formation of partially homozygous unreduced gametes [17]. |
Somaclonal Variation | Variation caused during tissue culture of orchids. Mutant plants can be distinguished by their morphological and physiological traits. It may be detected in the diploid karyotype of Phalaenopsis, but the specific chromosomal rearrangements are difficult to examine [25]. |
Tetrad | The four haploid products of meiosis [4] |
Tissue Culture | General term for the aseptic growth of tissues, calls and organs in vitro [4] |
Univalents | Homologs that fail to pair and form chiasmata between them at metaphase I. Their behavior at anaphase I is unpredictable and may not engage in successful division [18]. |
Unreduced Gamete | A gamete with the somatic chromosome complement [24]. |
Whole Genome Duplication (WGD) | Events of whole genome doublings (tetraploidizations) or whole genome triplications that lead to the formation of autotetraploid, allotetraploid and hexaploid plants [22]. |
Gene Name | Functional Features in the Literature and Databases 1,2,3 | Original Locus ID According to TAIR and NCBI 1,2 | Homologs of Interest in the Orchid Database Orchidstra 2.0 4 | Horticultural Use |
---|---|---|---|---|
ASY1NAPTIC1 (ASY1) | Encodes a protein with a HORMA-domain for recognition of chromatin states linked to DNA double-strand breaks, a peptidase domain, a Winged Helix (WH) DNA-binding domain and a SWIRM-domain for mediation of protein–protein interactions in the assembly of chromatin-protein complexes. ASY1 Participates in assembly of chiasmata and homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis. Mutants may show few chiasmata per nuclei. | At1g67370 | Phalaenopsis aphrodite transcript PATC148994 (E-Value: 1.32 × 10−142) | Heat-stress mediated disruption of synapsis and recombination. Formation of clonal gametes [44] |
CYCA1;2/TARDY ASYNCHRONOUS MEIOSIS (TAM) | Encodes a N-terminal cyclin-like protein that may regulate cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs). Encodes a core cell cycle gene involved in meiosis II progression. Mutants develop dyads. | At1g77390 | Phalaenopsis modesta transcript PMTC011254 (E-Value: 7 × 10−94) | Formation of 2n gametes through SDR [45] |
DYAD/SWITCH1 (SWI1) | Encodes a protein that features a catalytic phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C X-domain that is probably involved in signal transduction. Protein intervenes in chromatid cohesion establishment, in chromosome structure during male and female meiosis, and in axial element formation. | At5g51330 | Phalaenopsis lueddemanniana transcript PLTC046384 (E-Value: 4 × 10−84) | Development of unreduced gametes by FDR [43] |
ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA MAP KINASE 4 (MAPK4) | Encodes a protein with a conserved Mitogen-Activated Protein (MAP) kinase site. Required for male-specific meiotic cytokinesis. The mRNA is cell-to-cell mobile. | At4g01370 | Oncidium Gower Ramsey transcript OGTC022747 (E-Value: 6 × 10−13) | Formation of recombinant, SDR-type unreduced gametes [46] |
ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA MAP KINASE KINASE 6 (MKK6) | Encodes a kinase protein with an ATP-binding site. Phosphorylates MAPK4. Required for male meiotic cytokinesis. | At5g56580 | Phalaenopsis aphrodite transcript PATC137812 (E-Value: 5 × 10−152) | Formation of recombinant, SDR-type unreduced gametes [46] |
ARABIDOPSIS MUTS HOMOLOG 4 (MSH4) | Encodes a protein that features a core MutS, domain for DNA mismatch repair. It is involved in homologous chromosome segregation and meiotic mismatch repair during recombination. Mutants show low chiasmata formation. | At4g17380 | Phalaenopsis schilleriana transcript PSTC034674 (E-Value: 9 × 10−36) | Reduction of homoeologous recombination in polyploid hybrids, improved chromosome segregation [47] |
MMS and UV Sensitive 81 (MUS81) | Encodes a protein that features a WH-like DNA-binding domain for branch migration and transcriptional repression, and an ERCC4 domain for cleaving branched structures generated during DNA repair, replication, and recombination. Mutants show few bivalents. | At4g30870 | Phalaenopsis lueddemanniana transcript PLTC011379 (E-Value: 2.82 × 10−69) | Reduction of homoeologous recombination in polyploid hybrids, improved chromosome segregation [47] |
NPK1-ACTIVATING KINESIN 2/TETRASPORE (NACK2/TES) | Encodes a protein with a kinesin motor domain and a P-loop NTPase domain. It is required for cytokinesis in pollen. In mutants, all four microspore nuclei remain within the same cytoplasm after meiosis. | At3g43210 | Cymbidium ensifolium transcript CETC000340 (E-Value: 6 × 10−38) | Formation of recombinant, SDR-type unreduced gametes [48] |
NPK1-RELATED PROTEIN KINASE 3 (NP3) | Encodes a protein with a Serine/Threonine kinase domain. Regulates microtubule organization. May regulate formation of the intersporal callose wall after male meiosis. Mutants may not complete meiotic cytokinesis. | At3g06030 | Phalaenopsis schilleriana transcript PSTC039874 (E-Value: 2 × 10−41) | Formation of recombinant, SDR-type unreduced gametes [46] |
OMISSION OF SECOND DIVISION 1/GIGAS CELL 1 (OSD1/GIG1) | Encodes a protein from the Polychome protein. It may work as a negative regulator of the activity of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) ubiquitin ligase. Mutants produce diploid gametes by skipping the second meiotic division. | At3g57860 | Phalaenopsis schilleriana transcript PSTC034707 (E-Value: 7 × 10−75) | Formation of 2n gametes through SDR [45] |
PRECOCIOUS DISSOCIATION OF SISTERS 5B (PDS5B). | The respective protein contains an armadillo (ARM)-like fold, consisting of a multi-helical fold comprised of two curved layers of alpha helices that allow for proteins and nucleic acids. The Arabidopsis genome contains five orthologues that are required for proper chromosome segregation at anaphase I. | At1g77600 | Phalaenopsis schilleriana transcript PSTC040504 (E-Value: 9 × 10−30) | Stabilization of meiosis in hybrid polyploids [22] |
RECOMBINATION 8/SYNAPTIC 1 (REC8/SYN1) | Encodes a RAD21-protein which may assemble as a hetero-tetramer that enables opening of SMC-kleisin rings. It is involved in chromosome condensation, pairing and segregation during meiosis. Responsible for cohesion between replicated sister chromatids. | At5g05490 | Phalaenopsis aphrodite transcript PATC192174 (E-Value: 9 × 10−44) | Heat-stress mediated disruption of synapsis and recombination. Formation of clonal gametes. Formation of unreduced gametes by FDR [44,49]. |
REPLICATION PROTEIN A 1C (RPA1C) | Encodes a factor known as the Replication Protein A-70kDa-DNA-binding subunit. Contains an Oligonucleotide/Oligosaccharide Binding motif, or OB fold, a five-stranded beta-sheet coiled to bind single-stranded DNA. This protein regulates DNA unwinding during replication, recombination, and repair. Mutants show incomplete synapsis and meiotic chromosome fragmentation. | At5g45400 | Phalaenopsis bellina transcript PBTC027818 (E-Value: 2.70 × 10−128) | Reduction of homoeologous recombination in polyploid hybrids, improved chromosome segregation [47] |
STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE OF CHROMOSOMES 3/TITAN 7 (SMC3/TTN7) | May encode a member of the Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes (SMC) family of proteins. These proteins share a five-domain structure, with globular N- and C-terminal domains separated by a coiled-coil segment with a globular ‘‘hinge’’ domain. The N-terminal domain contains a ‘Walker A’ nucleotide-binding domain, while the C-terminal domain contains a ‘Walker B’ motif and an ATP-binding cassette (ABC). SMC3 localizes to the axial elements of pachytene chromosomes. Heterozygous mutants show reduced cohesion along the arms. | At2g27170 | Phalaenopsis equestris transcript PETC035815 (E-Value: 3.57 × 10−147) | Stabilization of meiosis in hybrid polyploids [22] |
STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE OF CHROMOSOMES 1/TITAN 8 (SMC1/TTN8) | May encode a SMC protein. Works together with SMC3 during the establishment of proper meiotic cohesion. | At3g54670 | Phalaenopsis bellina transcript PBTC023989 (E-Value: 3.25 × 10−122) | Stabilization of meiosis in hybrid polyploids [22] |
STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE OF CHROMOSOMES 6B/HYPERSENSITIVE TO MMS, IRRADIATION AND MMC; MIM (SMC6B/MIM) | May encode a protein part of the SMC5/6 complex. This complex promotes sister chromatid alignment and homologous recombination after DNA damage. Mutants produce unreduced gametes. | At5g61460 | Phalaenopsis equestris transcript PETC039012 (E-Value: 6.95 × 10−111) | Stabilization of meiosis in hybrid polyploids [22] |
SYNAPTONEMAL COMPLEX PROTEIN 1A (ZYP1A) | May encode a myosin heavy chain-related protein. It may feature two coiled-coil domains and several sites for polar, basic, and acidic residues. It is involved in chromosome synapsis during meiosis I and localizes at the synaptonemal complex (SC), Mutants show improper or non-homologous synapsis. | At1g22260 | Phalaenopsis lueddemanniana transcript PLTC005471 (E-Value: 3.64 × 10−24) | Heat-stress mediated disruption of synapsis and recombination. Formation of unreduced gametes by FDR [44] |
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Bolaños-Villegas, P.; Chen, F.-C. Advances and Perspectives for Polyploidy Breeding in Orchids. Plants 2022, 11, 1421. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111421
Bolaños-Villegas P, Chen F-C. Advances and Perspectives for Polyploidy Breeding in Orchids. Plants. 2022; 11(11):1421. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111421
Chicago/Turabian StyleBolaños-Villegas, Pablo, and Fure-Chyi Chen. 2022. "Advances and Perspectives for Polyploidy Breeding in Orchids" Plants 11, no. 11: 1421. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111421