Organophosphate Insecticide Toxicity in Neural Development, Cognition, Behaviour and Degeneration: Insights from Zebrafish
Abstract
:1. The Need for Insecticides
2. Insecticides—The Move to Organophosphates (OPs)
3. OPs—Mode of Action In Vivo
4. OPs—Occupational, Household and Waterway Exposure
5. Major Findings: The Zebrafish as Model for Testing Organophosphate (OP) Insecticides
6. Organophosphate Toxicity—Acute Cholinergic Syndrome (ACS)
7. Organophosphate Toxicity—Intermediate Syndrome (IMS)
8. Organophosphate Toxicity—Organophosphate-Induced Delayed Neuropathy (OPIDN)
9. Organophosphate Toxicity—Effects on Embryogenesis
10. Organophosphate Toxicity—Effects on Neurodevelopment and Early Behaviour
11. Organophosphate Toxicity—Effects in Adulthood and Neurodegenerative Diseases
12. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Molecular Formula: C9H10CIN2O5PS General Uses of OP: Used in Aquatic Farming (Atlantic Salmon) to Control Parasites. | Molecular Formula: C10H12N3O3PS2 General Uses of OP: Used on Orchard Fruits and Nut Crops to Control Moths. | ||
Molecular Formula: C9H11Cl3NO3PS General Uses of OP: Used broadly (crops/animals/buildings) to control roundworms, mosquitos and termites. | Molecular Formula: C12H21N2O3PS General Uses of OP: Used on crops (fruits/vegetables/nuts/field crops) to control ants, fleas and cockroaches. | ||
Molecular Formula: C4H7Cl2O4P General Uses of OP: Used broadly (household/ agriculture) to control flies, caterpillars, thrips and mites. | Molecular Formula: C9H12NO5PS General Uses of OP: Used broadly (public health/agriculture) to control beetles, grubs, locusts, flies, mosquitos, etc. | ||
Molecular Formula: C10H19O6PS2 General Uses of OP: Used broadly (landscaping/public health/agriculture) to control mosquitos, fleas and ants. | Molecular Formula: C8H10NO5PS General Uses of OP: Used in open fields (cotton, soybean, vegetable) to control boll weevils, etc. | ||
Molecular Formula: C10H14NO5PS General Uses of OP: No longer used (banned largely worldwide) due to its high toxicity. | Molecular Formula: C11H12NO4PS2 General Uses of OP: Used broadly (plants/animals) to control moths, mites, flies and aphids. | ||
Molecular Formula: C10H9Cl4O4P General Uses of OP: Used on animals (cattle, hogs, goats, chickens, and horses) to control flies and mites. |
Organophosphate(s) | Dosage(s) * | Gene(s) Involved ** | Exposure Period | Observations | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 10 & 100 ng/mL | - | 0–5 dpf |
| [58] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 100 ng/mL | - | 0–5 dpf |
| [59] |
Malathion (MAL) | MAL: 2.5 & 3 mg/L | - | 3 hpf–5 dpf |
| [60] |
Malathion (MAL) | MAL: 0.25, 0.5, 1, 3 & 5 mM | - | Adult (sexually mature) |
| [61] |
Diazinon (DZN) | DZN: 2000 & 3000 μg/L | - | 8 hpf–96 hpf |
| [62] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 & 1 mg/L | - | Acute: 5 dpf for 2 h Sub-chronic: ≤1 hpf–11dpf |
| [63] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 300, 1500 & 3000 nM | Rohon-Beard Development/Axonogenesis: agrin↓, cntn2↓, ntf3↓, sema3d↓ | 3 hpf–27 hpf/51 hpf/72 hpf/4 dpf |
| [64] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 0.29 μM | - | 0–5 dpf |
| [65] |
Chlorpyrifos-oxon (CPF metabolite) | CPF: 300 nM | 0.1 μg/L, 3 μg/L | 3 hpf–75 hpf |
| [66] |
Dichlorvos (DCV) | DCV: 20.81, 25 & 66.78 mg/L | - | 0 hpf–96 hpf |
| [67] |
Dichlorvos (DCV) Phoxim (PHO) | DCV: N/A PHO: 0.469, 0.513, 0.700 & 1.28 mg/L | - | Adult (sexually mature) |
| [4] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 0.6 μM | - | 1 ypf for 24 h |
| [68] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 0.01, 0.1 & 1 μM | - | 6 hpf–24/48/72 hpf |
| [69] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) Diazinon (DZN) Parathion (PA) | CPF: 0.3, 3 & 30 μM DZN: 10 & 30 μM PA: 10 & 30 μM | - | 6 hpf–5 dpf |
| [70] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 0.01 & 0.1 μM | - | 0–7 dpf |
| [71] |
Monocrotophos (MCP) | MCP: 0.001 & 0.100 mg/L | Sexual Differentiation: cyp19a1a↑, cyp19a1b↑, foxl2↑, dmrt1↓, B-actin, ef1-a | 72 hpfV–16 dpf |
| [72] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) Dichlorvos (DCV) Diazinon (DZN) | CPF: 1, 10, 100 & 1000 μM DCV: 100 & 1000 μM DZN: 100 & 1000 μM | - | 1 hpf–5 dpf |
| [73] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 30, 100 & 300 μg/L | Gfap, Mbp↓, Elavl3↑, Ngn1↑, Nestin↑, Shha↑ | 0–5 dpf |
| [50] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 200 & 400 μg/L | - | 2 hpfV–72 hpf |
| [74] |
Dichlorvos (DCV) | DCV: 6, 19, & 32 mg/L | Oxidative Stress: Nrf2 (many other associated genes within the Nrf2 pathway also examined) | 6–12 mpf |
| [75] |
Monocrotophos (MCP) | MCP: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 & 60 mg/L | - | 4 hpf–96 hpf |
| [1] |
Monocrotophos (MCP) | MCP: 100 μg/L | HPI Axis: Crf, Gr↓, POMC↓, P45011β, 11B-HSD2, StAR, 20B-HSD2↑, MC2R↓, TAT, PEPCK | Adult (sexually mature)—21 d exposure |
| [76] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 2 & 5 μM | - | Adult (sexually mature) |
| [77] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) Phoxim (PHO) | CPF: 0.28- 13.03 mg/L PHO: 0.89–26.48 mg/L | - | Embryo (1 hpf), larvae (72 hpf) and juvenile (1 mpf)—96 h exposure |
| [78] |
Diazinon (DZN) | DZN: 6.5 mg/L | - | 6 hpf–5 dpf |
| [2] |
Dichlorvos (DCV) | DCV: 15 mg/L | - | Adult (sexually mature) 4–5 m—24 h exposure |
| [79] |
Malathion (MAL) | MAL: 250, 500 & 1000 μg/L | HPG Axis: vtg1, vtg2, era↑, erB1, erB2, cyp19a1a, cyp19a1b↑ | 6 dpf–10 dpf |
| [80] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) Diazinon (DZN) | CPF: 1, 10, & 25 μM DZN: 10 & 100 μM | - | 6 hpf–102 hpf |
| [18] |
Monocrotophos (MCP) | MCP: 0.125, 0.625 & 1.25 uL/L | 24–72 hpf |
| [81] | |
Phosalone (PSL) | PSL: 86–505 μg/L | - | 8 wpf–96 h exposure |
| [82] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 30, 100 & 300 μg/L | Oxidative stress: Mn-Sod↑/↓, Cu/Zn-Sod↓, Gpx↓, Cat↓, Ucp2↓, bc12, Cox1↓ Glycolysis/Lipid: Gk↓, HK1, Pk↓, Pepckc↓, Aco↓, CPt1↓, Ppar-A↓, Acc1↓, Srebp 1a↓, Ppar-y↓, Fas↓, Fabp6, Apo↓, Dgat↓, LDLR↓, HMGCR, Fabp5 | Adult (sexually mature) |
| [56] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 30, 100 & 300 μg/L | Cardiovascular: Mef2c↓, Bmp4↓, VEGFR-2, JunB↑, Tbx2 Lipid: Ppar-a, Ppar-y↓, Srebp 1a, Acc1, Fas↓, Cpt1↓, Aco, Apo↓, Fabp5, Fabp6↓, Dgat↓, LDLR | 2 hpf–7 dpf |
| [83] |
Diazinon (DZN) Dichlorvos (DCV) Malathion (MAL) Parathion (PA) | DZN: 0.1 & 100 μg/L DCV: N/A MAL: 100 μg/L PA: 0.1 μg/L | Cholinergic: AChE↑/↓ Neurodegeneration: c-Fos, lingo-1b↑, grin-1b↓ | 5 hpf–5 dpf |
| [84] |
Dichlorvos (DCV) | DCV: 1, 5 & 10 mg/L | - | 1 hpf–7 dpf |
| [85] |
Sumithion (SMT) | SMT: 1 mg/L | - | Adult (sexually mature)—96h exposure |
| [86] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 1 & 3 μM | - | Adult (sexually mature) 6–8 m—2/5 w exposure |
| [87,88] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) Malathion (MAL) | CPF: 0.019, 0.077, 0.31, 0.41, 1.01, 1.53 & 6.15 mg/L MAL: 0.039, 0.16, 0.62, 2.90, 8.04, 8.54 & 12.45 mg/L | Oxidative Stress: Cat, CuSod, MnSod Immunity: Cxcl↓, IL↑, Tnf↑/↓ Apoptosis: Cas8↑/↓, Cas9, P53, Bax Endocrine: TRa, TRb↓, ERa, Tsh↓, Crh, cyp19a↑ | 1 hpf–96 hpf |
| [57] |
Sumithion (SMT) | SMT: 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8 & 1.6 mg/L | - | Embryo/larvae |
| [89] |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | CPF: 1μM | - | Adult (sexually mature)—5 w exposure |
| (Hawkey, 2021) |
Diazinon (DZN) | DZN: 0.4, 1.25 & 4.0 μM | 5–120 hpf |
| [90] | |
Malathion (MAL) Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | MAL: 5, 50 ug/L CPF: 0.1 & 3 ug/L | 0–14 dpf |
| [91] | |
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) | Caspase 3↓, Bcl-2↓, | Adult—8–12 months old 14 day exposure |
| [92] |
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Neylon, J.; Fuller, J.N.; van der Poel, C.; Church, J.E.; Dworkin, S. Organophosphate Insecticide Toxicity in Neural Development, Cognition, Behaviour and Degeneration: Insights from Zebrafish. J. Dev. Biol. 2022, 10, 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/jdb10040049
Neylon J, Fuller JN, van der Poel C, Church JE, Dworkin S. Organophosphate Insecticide Toxicity in Neural Development, Cognition, Behaviour and Degeneration: Insights from Zebrafish. Journal of Developmental Biology. 2022; 10(4):49. https://doi.org/10.3390/jdb10040049
Chicago/Turabian StyleNeylon, Jeremy, Jarrad N. Fuller, Chris van der Poel, Jarrod E. Church, and Sebastian Dworkin. 2022. "Organophosphate Insecticide Toxicity in Neural Development, Cognition, Behaviour and Degeneration: Insights from Zebrafish" Journal of Developmental Biology 10, no. 4: 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/jdb10040049