Gadolinium in Medical Imaging—Usefulness, Toxic Reactions and Possible Countermeasures—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Gadolinium in Medical Imaging
3. Pharmacokinetics and Toxicokinetics of Gd and Its Chelates
4. Toxic Effects of Gd-Compounds
4.1. Acute Reactions to GBCAs
4.2. Contrast Induced Nephropathy
4.3. Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF)
4.4. Gadolinium Retention/Deposition
4.5. Fetal Toxicity and the Use of GBCAs in Pregnancy
5. Biological Monitoring
6. Prevention and Treatment of Gd-Related Side Effects
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Blomqvist, L.; Nordberg, G.F.; Nurchi, V.M.; Aaseth, J.O. Gadolinium in Medical Imaging—Usefulness, Toxic Reactions and Possible Countermeasures—A Review. Biomolecules 2022, 12, 742. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom12060742
Blomqvist L, Nordberg GF, Nurchi VM, Aaseth JO. Gadolinium in Medical Imaging—Usefulness, Toxic Reactions and Possible Countermeasures—A Review. Biomolecules. 2022; 12(6):742. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom12060742
Chicago/Turabian StyleBlomqvist, Lennart, Gunnar F. Nordberg, Valeria M. Nurchi, and Jan O. Aaseth. 2022. "Gadolinium in Medical Imaging—Usefulness, Toxic Reactions and Possible Countermeasures—A Review" Biomolecules 12, no. 6: 742. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom12060742