Circulating microRNA as a Biomarker for Coronary Artery Disease
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Localisation of miRNA
3. Physiological Roles of miRNA and Their Clinical Relevance
4. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) Pathophysiology
5. CAD Biomarkers and miRNA
5.1. Localised Changes in miRNA Profiles
5.2. Changes in Circulating miRNA
6. miRNA in CAD Pathophysiology
6.1. Lipid Metabolism
6.2. Inflammation
7. Pitfalls in Assessing miRNA as Biomarker Targets
7.1. Confounding Factors
7.2. Measuring Serum and Plasma miRNA
8. Validity of miRNA as Biomarkers
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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References | miRNA | Quantitative Effect | Outcome | Sample Type | miRNA Identification/Quantification Method | Cell Lines/Study Population | Acute/Chronic Disease Status |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wang et al., 2016 [118] | miRNA-146a | Upregulated | This miRNA may be a potential biomarker for poor coronary collateral circulation in CAD patients. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Chronic (1-month cut-off) |
Li et al., 2017 [119] | miRNA-155-5p miRNA-483-5p miRNA-451a | MiRNA-155-5p and miRNA-483-5p are upregulated; miRNA-451a is down-regulated | Potential biomarkers for the early detection of atherosclerotic plaque rupture. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Stable CAD |
Zhao et al., 2015 [37] | miRNA-143 miRNA-145 | Contested | Altered in CAD. Potentially released from vascular walls. | Plasma | (Review article) | (Review article) | (Review article) |
Li et al., 2017 [120] | miRNA-122 miRNA-140-3p miRNA-720 miRNA-2861 miRNA-3149 | Upregulated | Elevated during the early stages of ACS. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Bama male minipigs and human patients | Minipigs: normal and acute MI. Human patients: Stable angina, unstable angina and acute MI. |
Jansen et al., 2017 [121] | miRNA-21 miRNA-126-3p miRNA-222 | Upregulated | These miRNAs increased in concentration following periods of cardiac stress in patients with stenosed coronary arteries. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Stable CAD |
Soeki et al., 2015 [122] | miRNA-100 | - | Associated with coronary plaque instability. Potentially released from plaques. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown |
Liu et al., 2017 [123] | miRNA-29a | Upregulated | Moderates expression of mRNAs of extracellular matrix proteins. Associated with atherosclerosis and intima-media thickness of carotid arteries. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown |
Wang et al., 2017 [124] | miRNA-126 | Downregulated | A potential biomarker for CAD. Inversely correlated to placenta growth factor. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | CAD for 15–24 months |
Al-Kafaji et al., 2017 [125] | miRNA-126 | Downregulated | A potential biomarker for CAD. Inversely correlated with LDL concentration. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Type 2 diabetics, some with CAD diagnoses |
Al-Muhtaresh et al., 2019 [126] | miRNA-1 miRNA-133 | Upregulated | Potential biomarkers. Both correlate with LDL-C levels; miR-1 is known to negatively regulate Bcl2 [127]. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Type 2 diabetics, some with CAD diagnoses |
Zernecke et al., 2009 [14] | miRNA-126 | - | Released from apoptotic bodies derived from endothelial cells from atherosclerotic plaques. Reduces inflammatory activity/plaque development. | Plasma/Plaque | qRT-PCR | Human aortic smooth muscle cell culture. Human atherosclerotic plaques. ApoE−/− murine endothelial cell cultures. HUVEC cell line | Unknown |
Wang et al., 2014 [128] | miRNA-31 miRNA-720 | Downregulated | Potential biomarkers for early CAD. | Plasma/endothelial progenitor cells | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown CAD |
Zhang et al., 2017 [129] | miRNA-208a | - | Significant association with Gensini score, and by extension the severity of atherosclerosis. Potential biomarker for CAD severity. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown CAD |
Jansen et al., 2014 [111] | miRNA-126 miRNA-199a | - | The levels of these miRNA, which occur in circulating microvesicles, are potentially prognostic for major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with stable CAD. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Stable CAD |
Han et al., 2015 [130] | miRNA-21 miRNA-23a miRNA-30a miRNA-34a miRNA-106b | Upregulated | These miRNAs occur at higher levels in ApoE−/− mice, which models hypercholesterolaemia. MiRNA-21, -23a, and -34a are potential biomarkers for CAD. MiRNA-21 has been linked to CAD-derived ACS. | Plasma | qRT-PCR and miRNA microarrays | ApoE−/− mice and human CAD patients | Unknown |
Zhou et al., 2016 [70] | miRNA-206 miRNA-564-5p | Upregulated | Potential biomarkers for CAD | Plasma | qRT-PCR and miRNA microarrays | Human patients | Unknown |
Sayed et al., 2015 [96] | miRNA-149 miRNA-424 miRNA-765 | MiRNA-149 and miRNA-424 were upregulated, miRNA-765 was downregulated | Potential biomarkers for CAD in middle-aged patients | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Stable and unstable CAD |
Gao et al., 2015 [131] | miRNA-145 | Downregulated | This miRNA regulates VSMC fate, inhibiting proliferation. It is the modal miRNA in healthy vessel walls, though in atherosclerotic plaques it may not even be detected. Plasma concentration levels are significantly reduced in CAD patients, and those with three-vessel disease have a significantly lower quantity as well. Potential biomarker for CAD. | Plasma/plaque | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown (patients diagnosed with CAD for more than a year) |
Ren et al., 2013 [132] | miRNA-106b/25 cluster miRNA-17/92a cluster miRNA-21/590-5p cluster miRNA-126 miRNA-451 | Upregulated in patients with unstable angina, though there is evidence that miRNA-17/92a was actually downregulated in CAD patients [83] | These miRNAs are elevated in CAD patients relative to those with stable AP. MiRNA-17/92a is involved in angiogenesis, which further complicates plaques. Increased miRNA-21 can yield increased MMP activity, which can hinder plaque progression. Potential biomarkers for CAD. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | CAD and unstable angina |
Chen et al., 2015 [133] | miRNA-17-5p | Upregulated | Potential biomarker for early CAD. | Plasma | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown |
Faccini et al., 2017 [89] | miRNA-155 miRNA-145 let-7c | Downregulated | Potential biomarkers for CAD | Plasma | qRT-PCR and miRNA microarrays | Human patients | Unknown |
Koroleva et al., 2017 [51] | miRNA-21 miRNA-100 miRNA-127 miRNA-133 miRNA-143/145 miRNA-221/222 miRNA-494 | All upregulated apart from miRNA-221/222, which was downregulated | The expression of these miRNA may influence plaque stability: miRNA-21, -143, and -221 are pro-stability; miRNA-100, -127, -133, and -494 are pro-instability. | Plaque | (Review article) | (Review article) | (Review article) |
Lin et al., 2016 [134] | miRNA-365 | Downregulated | Regulation of the inflammatory response, specifically IL-6 activity, such that IL-6 expression increases as miRNA-365 expression decreases. | Plaque, serum, and circulating monocytes | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown (patients with atherosclerosis) |
Cipollone et al., 2011 [135] | miRNA-100 miRNA-127 miRNA-145 miRNA-133a/b | Upregulated | The expression of these miRNA varies with plaque stability. MiRNA-133 is relevant to stroke-related proteins and is thought to be vascular smooth muscle-specific. | Plaque | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown |
Kumar et al., 2014 [136] | miRNA-712 miRNA-205 | Upregulated in atherosclerosis | These miRNA target and reduce expression of metalloproteinase inhibitor 3 (TIMP3), increasing the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which affects inflammatory processes and VSMC/leukocyte migration in atherosclerosis. | Endothelial cells (Plaque) | Review (qRT-PCR, microarrays, and fluorescent in situ hybridisation) | Review (mice (C57BL/6 and ApoE−/−)) | Review (unknown) |
Tian et al., 2014 [137] | miRNA-155 | Upregulated | Raised inflammatory response and foam cell differentiation. | Monocytes (plaque) | qRT-PCR | ApoE−/− mice | Unknown |
Horie et al., 2012 [138] | miRNA-33 | - | Deficiency in ApoE knockout mice suppressed atherogenesis/plaque progression. | Monocytes/macrophages (plaque) | qRT-PCR | ApoE−/− mice | Unknown |
Fang et al., 2010 [139] | miRNA-10a | Downregulated | Expression levels were reduced in endothelial cells that are thought to be pre-atherosclerotic, affecting inflammation signalling. | Endothelial cells (plaque) | qRT-PCR, miRNA microarrays, and fluorescent in situ hybridisation | Adult pigs | Unknown |
Zernecke et al., 2009 [14] | miRNA-126 | - | Released from apoptotic bodies derived from endothelial cells from atherosclerotic plaques. MiRNAs reduce inflammatory activity/plaque development. | Plasma/plaque | qRT-PCR | Human aortic smooth muscle cell culture. Human atherosclerotic plaques. ApoE−/− murine endothelial cell cultures. HUVEC cell line. | Unknown |
Raitoharju et al., 2011 [62] | miRNA-21 miRNA-34a miRNA-146a miRNA-146b-5p miRNA-210 | Upregulated | These miRNAs were upregulated in plaques compared to left internal thoracic arteries that were not atherosclerotic. This has been linked to VSMC changes seen in atherogenesis. | Plaque | miRNA microarrays and qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown |
Shan et al., 2015 [140] | miRNA-223 | Upregulated | This miRNAs seems to be secreted from cells in the circulation. Their levels are elevated in the serum and atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein-E knockout mice. | Plaque serum/blood cells | qRT-PCR | Sprague–Dawley rat VSMC cultures and C67BL/6 murine platelets | Unknown |
Bidzhekov et al., 2012 [141] | miRNA-26b miRNA30e-5p miRNA-105 miRNA125a-5p miRNA-520b | MiRNA-26b, -30e-5p, and -125a-5p were upregulated. MiRNA-105 and miRNA-520b were downregulated. | These miRNAs had altered expression in CAD patients relative to healthy controls. | Plaque, monocytes | qRT-PCR and miRNA microarrays | Human patients | Unknown |
Jansen et al., 2013 [142] | miRNA-126 | Downregulated | Circulating levels of miRNA-126 decreased in CAD patients. | Circulating microparticles | qRT-PCR | Mice and human patients | Stable CAD since 2003 |
Schulte et al., 2015 [143] | miRNA-197 miRNA-223 | - | Strong prognostic value in CAD patients for cardiac death. | Serum | qRT-PCR | Human patients | Unknown CAD |
Hulsmans et al., 2012 [144] | miRNA-181a | Downregulated | Potential biomarker for CAD, as well as metabolic syndrome | Monocytes | qRT-PCR and miRNA microarrays | Human patients | Unknown |
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Fazmin, I.T.; Achercouk, Z.; Edling, C.E.; Said, A.; Jeevaratnam, K. Circulating microRNA as a Biomarker for Coronary Artery Disease. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 1354. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10101354
Fazmin IT, Achercouk Z, Edling CE, Said A, Jeevaratnam K. Circulating microRNA as a Biomarker for Coronary Artery Disease. Biomolecules. 2020; 10(10):1354. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10101354
Chicago/Turabian StyleFazmin, Ibrahim T., Zakaria Achercouk, Charlotte E. Edling, Asri Said, and Kamalan Jeevaratnam. 2020. "Circulating microRNA as a Biomarker for Coronary Artery Disease" Biomolecules 10, no. 10: 1354. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10101354