Assessment of the Nutritional Value of Stems and Leaves of Australian Adzuki Bean
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Vegetative Material and Preparation
2.2. Measurement of Proximate Chemical Composition
2.3. Extraction of Phenolics and Measurement of TPC
2.4. Targeted Phenolic Profiling Using LC-MS/MS
2.5. Screening for Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition Activity
2.6. Apparent In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility
2.7. Rumen Fluid Collection
2.8. Total Gas Production
2.9. Total Methane Production
2.10. Amylase Neutral Detergent Fibre
2.11. Ammonia
2.12. Volatile Fatty Acids
2.13. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Proximate Nutritional Composition
3.2. Total Phenolic Contents
3.3. Phenolic Profiling by LC-MS/MS
3.4. Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activity
3.5. In Vitro Digestibility
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variety | Protein Content (%) | Gross Energy Content (MJ/kg) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Leaves | Stems | Leaves | Stems | |
AVTAB#1 | 19.5 | 7.4 | 17.0 | 14.5 |
AVTAB#3 | 20.8 | 7.4 | 17.6 | 16.1 |
AVTAB#4 | 20.4 | 8.1 | 15.8 | 14.8 |
AVTAB#5 | 21.7 | 7.4 | 18.0 | 15.3 |
AVTAB#6 | 22.3 | 8.9 | 18.0 | 15.6 |
AVTAB#7 | 21.0 | 7.5 | 16.9 | 16.0 |
AVTAB#8 | 20.2 | 7.9 | 17.9 | 16.0 |
AVTAB#9 | 24.0 | 8.9 | 17.7 | 16.0 |
AVTAB#10 | 22.6 | 12.8 | 16.0 | 15.4 |
Compound | AVTAB#1 | AVTAB#3 | AVTAB#4 | AVTAB#5 | AVTAB#6 | AVTAB#7 | AVTAB#8 | AVTAB#9 | AVTAB#10 | ANOVA |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gallic acid | 0.05 ± 0.00 c | 0.16 ± 0.00 ab | 0.13 ± 0.00 b | 0.14 ± 0.01 b | 0.15 ± 0.03 ab | 0.19 ± 0.02 a | 0.11 ± 0.01 b | 0.19 ± 0.00 a | 0.14 ± 0.01 b | <0.001 |
Protocatechuic acid | 0.78 ± 0.06 ab | 0.95 ± 0.08 a | 0.69 ± 0.01 b | 0.80 ± 0.05 ab | 0.80 ± 0.06 ab | 0.42 ± 0.07 c | 0.97 ± 0.03 a | 0.86 ± 0.03 ab | 0.84 ± 0.04 ab | <0.001 |
Gentisic acid | 0.25 ± 0.13 d | 0.47 ± 0.04 c | 0.25 ± 0.01 cd | 0.18 ± 0.04 d | 0.25 ± 0.01 cd | 1.29 ± 0.05 a | 1.30 ± 0.04 a | 0.81 ± 0.09 b | 0.41 ± 0.00 cd | <0.001 |
4-hydroxybenzoic acid | 0.83 ± 0.02 c | 1.35 ± 0.25 ab | 1.18 ± 0.01 bc | 1.34 ± 0.05 ab | 1.01 ± 0.13 bc | 1.24 ± 0.04 bc | 1.67 ± 0.04 a | 1.24 ± 0.08 bc | 1.42 ± 0.10 ab | 0.001 |
Neochlorogenic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.29 ± 0.07 | ND | ND | ND | - |
(+)-Catechin | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.05 ± 0.01 | ND | ND | 0.27 ± 0.01 | ND | <0.001 |
Caffeic acid | 0.91 ± 0.01 a | 0.64 ± 0.01 b | 0.47 ± 0.05 cd | 0.46 ± 0.01 cd | 0.72 ± 0.05 b | 0.52 ± 0.01 c | 0.95 ± 0.03 a | 0.63 ± 0.02 b | 0.40 ± 0.01 d | <0.001 |
Chlorogenic acid | 0.32 ± 0.02 a | 0.09 ± 0.00 d | 0.09 ± 0.00 d | 0.08 ± 0.01 d | 0.21 ± 0.01 b | 0.17 ± 0.02 bc | 0.15 ± 0.01 c | 0.16 ± 0.01 bc | 0.18 ± 0.01 bc | <0.001 |
Cyanidin 3-glucoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Salicylic acid | 3.03 ± 0.00 c | 2.49 ± 0.12 d | 1.79 ± 0.04 e | 1.90 ± 0.03 e | 2.67 ± 0.10 d | 8.24 ± 0.02 a | 3.96 ± 0.02 b | 3.87 ± 0.03 b | 2.46 ± 0.05 d | <0.001 |
Vanillic acid | 0.79 ± 0.03 a | 0.29 ± 0.01 cd | 0.37 ± 0.04 cd | 0.59 ± 0.07 b | 0.80 ± 0.09 a | 0.25 ± 0.03 d | 0.30 ± 0.00 cd | 0.39 ± 0.04 cd | 0.43 ± 0.02 bc | <0.001 |
Syringic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
p-Coumaric acid | 1.26 ± 0.07 de | 1.57 ± 0.20 cd | 1.11 ± 0.02 e | 1.31 ± 0.03 de | 1.79 ± 0.15 bc | 2.29 ± 0.08 a | 2.00 ± 0.00 ab | 2.06 ± 0.07 ab | 1.90 ± 0.09 abc | <0.001 |
Malvidin 3-glucoside | 0.04 ± 0.00 a | 0.01 ± 0.00 bc | 0.02 ± 0.00 b | 0.02 ± 0.00 b | 0.01 ± 0.00 b | <0.01 ± 0.00 d | 0.01 ± 0.00 bcd | 0.01 ± 0.00 bcd | <0.01 ± 0.00 cd | <0.001 |
Ferulic acid | 1.27 ± 0.08 d | 1.71 ± 0.19 ab | 1.35 ± 0.01 cd | 1.66 ± 0.09 abc | 1.93 ± 0.00 a | 1.61 ± 0.08 abcd | 1.96 ± 0.11 a | 1.56 ± 0.05 bcd | 1.86 ± 0.02 ab | <0.001 |
Vitexin | 0.06 ± 0.02 cd | 0.21 ± 0.02 b | 0.28 ± 0.02 a | 0.19 ± 0.01 b | 0.19 ± 0.02 b | 0.01 ± 0.00 d | 0.03 ± 0.00 d | 0.03 ± 0.00 d | 0.11 ± 0.01 c | <0.001 |
Rutin | 406.35 ± 4.59 a | 370.10 ± 6.47 b | 316.03 ± 0.94 c | 323.92 ± 1.90 c | 401.81 ± 3.70 a | 167.22 ± 0.83 e | 407.74 ± 17.65 a | 394.20 ± 6.75 ab | 278.44 ± 9.40 d | <0.001 |
Quercetin 3-glucoside | 4.26 ± 0.20 b | 3.66 ± 0.07 cd | 2.64 ± 0.08 ef | 3.43 ± 0.10 d | 4.02 ± 0.28 bc | 4.99 ± 0.19 a | 2.79 ± 0.05 e | 3.66 ± 0.04 cd | 2.20 ± 0.01 f | <0.001 |
Sinapic acid | 0.30 ± 0.05 c | 0.46 ± 0.14 bc | 0.28 ± 0.03 c | 0.44 ± 0.03 bc | 0.59 ± 0.00 bc | 0.28 ± 0.04 c | 0.91 ± 0.11 a | 0.63 ± 0.09 ab | 0.41 ± 0.10 bc | <0.001 |
Ellagic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Phloridzin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Myricetin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Resveratrol | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Pelargonidin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Delphinidin | 0.02 ± 0.01 c | 0.12 ± 0.05 bc | 0.11 ± 0.01 bc | 0.01 ± 0.00 c | 0.05 ± 0.01 c | 2.39 ± 0.01 a | 0.21 ± 0.03 b | 0.22 ± 0.08 b | 0.04 ± 0.02 c | <0.001 |
Quercetin | 0.07 ± 0.02 cd | 0.12 ± 0.00 cd | 0.15 ± 0.02 cd | 0.01 ± 0.00 d | 0.02 ± 0.01 d | 2.42 ± 0.17 a | 0.27 ± 0.00 bc | 0.41 ± 0.00 b | 0.02 ± 0.00 d | <0.001 |
Luteolin | 3.22 ± 0.02 c | 3.34 ± 0.24 c | 3.01 ± 0.03 c | 3.51 ± 0.02 c | 2.99 ± 0.06 c | 14.00 ± 0.26 a | 4.79 ± 0.23 b | 5.07 ± 0.08 b | 2.23 ± 0.10 d | <0.001 |
Cyanidin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Kaempferol | 0.63 ± 0.09 bc | 0.50 ± 0.01 bc | 0.75 ± 0.01 b | 0.38 ± 0.04 bc | 0.37 ± 0.07 bc | 2.26 ± 0.30 a | 0.54 ± 0.02 bc | 0.48 ± 0.06 bc | 0.27 ± 0.09 c | <0.001 |
Naringenin | 0.16 ± 0.00 e | 0.19 ± 0.00 de | 0.17 ± 0.01 e | 0.18 ± 0.00 de | 0.22 ± 0.00 cd | 0.39 ± 0.02 a | 0.29 ± 0.02 b | 0.25 ± 0.00 c | 0.25 ± 0.01 c | <0.001 |
Apigenin | 0.54 ± 0.02 d | 0.65 ± 0.02 cd | 0.61 ± 0.01 d | 0.63 ± 0.01 d | 0.60 ± 0.01 d | 3.07 ± 0.11 a | 0.79 ± 0.02 c | 1.00 ± 0.03 b | 0.60 ± 0.01 d | <0.001 |
Sum of identified compounds | 425.2 ± 4.8 a | 389.1 ± 6.5 b | 331.5 ± 1.1 c | 341.2 ± 1.8 c | 421.3 ± 2.8 a | 213.5 ± 1.7 e | 431.7 ± 17.4 a | 418.0 ± 6.9 ab | 294.6 ± 10.0 d | <0.001 |
Compound | AVTAB#1 | AVTAB#3 | AVTAB#4 | AVTAB#5 | AVTAB#6 | AVTAB#7 | AVTAB#8 | AVTAB#9 | AVTAB#10 | ANOVA |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gallic acid | 0.05 ± 0.00 d | 0.06 ± 0.01 cd | 0.05 ± 0.00 d | 0.08 ± 0.01 bcd | 0.10 ± 0.00 b | 0.10 ± 0.02 bc | 0.07 ± 0.01 bcd | 0.15 ± 0.01 a | 0.10 ± 0.00 b | <0.001 |
Protocatechuic acid | 0.15 ± 0.00 cd | 0.11 ± 0.01 d | 0.12 ± 0.01 cd | 0.13 ± 0.00 cd | 0.19 ± 0.02 bc | 0.68 ± 0.01 a | 0.12 ± 0.01 cd | 0.23 ± 0.04 b | 0.14 ± 0.02 cd | <0.001 |
Gentisic acid | 0.07 ± 0.02 d | 0.12 ± 0.02 cd | 0.18 ± 0.03 bc | 0.17 ± 0.01 bc | 0.23 ± 0.01 b | 1.34 ± 0.03 a | 0.13 ± 0.03 cd | 0.14 ± 0.01 cd | 0.21 ± 0.00 b | <0.001 |
4-hydroxybenzoic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Neochlorogenic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
(+)-Catechin | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.26 ± 0.03 | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Caffeic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Chlorogenic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | ND | ND | ND | - |
Cyanidin 3-glucoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Salicylic acid | 4.91 ± 0.01 d | 7.61 ± 0.28 b | 3.63 ± 0.02 e | 3.33 ± 0.10 e | 4.80 ± 0.12 d | 13.25 ± 0.42 a | 8.30 ± 0.01 b | 3.98 ± 0.13 e | 6.35 ± 0.09 c | <0.001 |
Vanillic acid | 0.09 ± 0.01 ab | 0.07 ± 0.01 bc | 0.10 ± 0.01 ab | 0.13 ± 0.02 a | 0.09 ± 0.00 ab | 0.04 ± 0.02 cd | 0.02 ± 0.00 d | 0.03 ± 0.01 cd | 0.03 ± 0.01 cd | <0.001 |
Syringic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
p-Coumaric acid | 0.45 ± 0.02 b | 0.51 ± 0.01 b | 0.42 ± 0.04 bc | 0.21 ± 0.08 d | 0.30 ± 0.00 cd | 0.67 ± 0.05 a | 0.40 ± 0.04 bc | 0.22 ± 0.01 d | 0.29 ± 0.01 cd | <0.001 |
Malvidin 3-glucoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Ferulic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Vitexin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Rutin | 10.16 ± 0.18 d | 16.71 ± 0.10 c | 33.50 ± 1.71 b | 22.12 ± 0.94 c | 18.80 ± 0.84 c | 91.74 ± 3.63 a | 3.38 ± 0.10 e | 3.24 ± 0.66 e | 9.44 ± 0.06 d | <0.001 |
Quercetin 3-glucoside | 0.17 ± 0.02 cd | 0.25 ± 0.02 c | 0.48 ± 0.03 b | 0.41 ± 0.05 b | 0.39 ± 0.01 b | 2.33 ± 0.04 a | 0.04 ± 0.01 e | 0.06 ± 0.02 e | 0.11 ± 0.00 de | <0.001 |
Sinapic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Ellagic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Phloridzin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Myricetin | 0.02 ± 0.00 bcd | 0.01 ± 0.00 d | 0.03 ± 0.01 bcd | 0.04 ± 0.00 bc | 0.04 ± 0.01 b | 0.09 ± 0.00 a | <0.01 ± 0.00 d | 0.01 ± 0.00 d | 0.02 ± 0.01 cd | <0.001 |
Resveratrol | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Pelargonidin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Delphinidin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Quercetin | 0.04 ± 0.01 cd | 0.04 ± 0.00 cde | 0.07 ± 0.00 b | 0.03 ± 0.01 de | 0.05 ± 0.00 bcd | 1.35 ± 0.01 a | 0.01 ± 0.01 e | 0.01 ± 0.01 e | 0.06 ± 0.00 bc | <0.001 |
Luteolin | 2.42 ± 0.18 ef | 2.52 ± 0.06 ef | 5.70 ± 0.36 a | 4.91 ± 0.00 ab | 4.69 ± 0.19 bc | 3.92 ± 0.20 cd | 3.22 ± 0.23 de | 2.14 ± 0.36 f | 1.07 ± 0.01 g | <0.001 |
Cyanidin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - |
Kaempferol | 0.21 ± 0.02 abc | 0.08 ± 0.02 cde | 0.23 ± 0.06 a | 0.10 ± 0.06 bcde | 0.15 ± 0.00 abcd | 0.22 ± 0.01 ab | 0.06 ± 0.04 de | 0.01 ± 0.01 e | 0.03 ± 0.00 e | <0.001 |
Naringenin | 0.27 ± 0.01 c | 0.33 ± 0.01 b | 0.34 ± 0.01 b | 0.40 ± 0.00 b | 0.19 ± 0.01 a | 0.19 ± 0.00 d | 0.16 ± 0.00 de | 0.14 ± 0.00 e | 0.33 ± 0.01 b | <0.001 |
Apigenin | 0.45 ± 0.02 cde | 0.48 ± 0.01 cd | 0.68 ± 0.03 a | 0.50 ± 0.02 bc | 0.56 ± 0.03 b | 0.46 ± 0.01 cde | 0.41 ± 0.01 e | 0.24 ± 0.00 f | 0.42 ± 0.01 de | <0.001 |
Sum of identified compounds | 19.5 ± 0.4 d | 28.9 ± 0.3 c | 45.5 ± 2.1 b | 32.5 ± 1.0 c | 31.1 ± 0.9 c | 116.4 ± 4.2 a | 16.3 ± 0.4 de | 10.6 ± 1.3 e | 18.6 ± 0.1 d | <0.001 |
Analyte | Lucerne | AVTAB#5 | AVTAB#6 | AVTAB#7 | AVTAB#8 | AVTAB#9 | ANOVA |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apparent dry matter digestibility (%) | 62.18 ± 0.46 | 58.33 ± 2.55 | 58.95 ± 0.34 | 58.05 ± 1.59 | 63.13 ± 1.70 | 65.26 ± 3.92 | 0.066 |
Amylase neutral detergent fibre (%) | 39.82 ± 1.40 | 40.93 ± 3.13 | 38.32 ± 3.45 | 41.66 ± 2.89 | 38.00 ± 3.13 | 39.78 ± 0.03 | 0.710 |
Ammonia (mg N NH3/L) 1 | 59.44 ± 15.83 | 51.73 ± 2.81 | 58.94 ± 11.61 | 45.26 ± 2.11 | 50.23 ± 2.81 | 77.09 ± 14.07 | 0.149 |
Total gas production (mL/g DM) | 85.58 ± 5.77 | 73.84 ± 9.09 | 69.31 ± 10.06 | 72.99 ± 6.96 | 82.66 ± 10.05 | 73.26 ± 8.39 | 0.444 |
Methane production (mL/g DM) | 9.49 ± 1.88 | 6.32 ± 1.6 | 6.69 ± 2.69 | 7.68 ± 1.11 | 6.33 ± 0.62 | 8.19 ± 1.04 | 0.418 |
Volatile fatty acid—Acetic (mM) | 11.57 ± 1.10 a | 10.41 ± 0.51 ab | 9.40 ± 1.04 b | 10.32 ± 1.28 ab | 10.75 ± 0.47 ab | 10.10 ± 1.20 ab | 0.048 |
Volatile fatty acid—Propionic (mM) | 4.04 ± 0.49 a | 3.10 ± 0.03 b | 2.74 ± 0.82 b | 3.31 ± 0.52 ab | 3.32 ± 0.03 ab | 3.54 ± 0.49 ab | 0.007 |
Volatile fatty acid—Butyric (mM) | 4.49 ± 2.03 | 3.77 ± 0.44 | 4.09 ± 1.57 | 3.60 ± 1.84 | 4.45 ± 0.75 | 4.52 ± 1.32 | 0.805 |
Volatile fatty acid—Valeric (mM) | 6.22 ± 1.32 | 4.77 ± 0.44 | 5.37 ± 0.92 | 4.80 ± 1.56 | 5.40 ± 0.32 | 5.76 ± 0.82 | 0.157 |
Analyte | Lucerne | AVTAB#5 | AVTAB#6 | AVTAB#7 | AVTAB#9 | ANOVA |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apparent dry matter digestibility (%) | 62.18 ± 0.46 a | 56.52 ± 0.01 a | 57.06 ± 3.05 a | 58.66 ± 0.56 a | 47.59 ± 1.51 b | 0.002 |
Amylase neutral detergent fibre (%) | 39.82 ± 1.40 c | 52.31 ± 0.41 b | 52.16 ± 0.53 b | 53.40 ± 1.86 b | 64.69 ± 0.57 a | <0.001 |
Ammonia (mg N NH3/L) 1 | 59.44 ± 15.83 a | 20.64 ± 1.06 ab | −1.99 ± 21.10 b | 26.86 ± 2.81 ab | 29.84 ± 3.52 ab | 0.03 |
Total gas production (mL/g DM) | 85.58 ± 5.77 | 74.73 ± 5.87 | 60.42 ± 13.87 | 72.70 ± 4.32 | 58.54 ± 1.97 | 0.69 |
Methane production (mL/g DM) | 9.49 ± 1.88 | 6.76 ± 1.75 | 5.65 ± 1.33 | 7.43 ± 0.53 | 4.71 ± 1.01 | 0.104 |
Volatile fatty acid—Acetic (mM) | 11.57 ± 1.10 a | 9.06 ± 0.60 b | 9.17 ± 0.09 b | 9.33 ± 1.04 b | 7.39 ± 0.15 c | <0.001 |
Volatile fatty acid—Propionic (mM) | 4.04 ± 0.49 a | 3.72 ± 0.39 ab | 3.30 ± 0.10 b | 3.89 ± 0.54 ab | 3.92 ± 0.07 ab | 0.039 |
Volatile fatty acid—Butyric (mM) | 4.49 ± 2.03 | 2.48 ± 1.22 | 2.67 ± 1.25 | 2.76 ± 0.97 | 2.36 ± 0.78 | 0.08 |
Volatile fatty acid—Valeric (mM) | 6.22 ± 1.32 a | 2.10 ± 0.72 b | 2.21 ± 0.72 b | 2.42 ± 0.76 b | 2.07 ± 0.40 b | <0.001 |
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Johnson, J.B.; Batley, R.J.; Neupane, P.; Bhattarai, S.P.; Trotter, T.; Costa, D.F.A.; Naiker, M. Assessment of the Nutritional Value of Stems and Leaves of Australian Adzuki Bean. Metabolites 2023, 13, 1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13101062
Johnson JB, Batley RJ, Neupane P, Bhattarai SP, Trotter T, Costa DFA, Naiker M. Assessment of the Nutritional Value of Stems and Leaves of Australian Adzuki Bean. Metabolites. 2023; 13(10):1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13101062
Chicago/Turabian StyleJohnson, Joel B., Ryan J. Batley, Pasmita Neupane, Surya P. Bhattarai, Tieneke Trotter, Diogo Fleury Azevedo Costa, and Mani Naiker. 2023. "Assessment of the Nutritional Value of Stems and Leaves of Australian Adzuki Bean" Metabolites 13, no. 10: 1062. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13101062