Abstract
The rapid development of digital technologies is opening up new avenues for transforming education, particularly in fields that require practical training, such as electronic circuit design. In this context, this paper presents the development of a multiplayer virtual learning platform that makes use of digital twins technology to offer a realistic, collaborative experience in a simulated environment. Users can interact in real time through synchronized avatars, voice communication, and multiple viewing angles, simulating a physical classroom. Evaluation of the platform with undergraduate students showed positive results in terms of usability, collaboration, and learning effectiveness. Despite the limitations of the sample, the findings reinforce the prospect of virtual laboratories as a modern tool in technical education.
1. Introduction
The rapid development of technology and the increasing digitization of the educational process have made virtual labs a key tool in higher and professional education. Educational institutions are constantly seeking new methods to improve the accessibility, interactivity, and effectiveness of practical education, particularly in technical fields such as electronics and engineering. In this context, multiplayer virtual labs, which support simultaneous collaboration between students, are emerging as an innovative and promising educational model [1].
Recent studies show that virtual laboratories—computer-based environments that simulate physical lab activities—have been integrated into a large proportion of university programs worldwide, as they are a key tool for enhancing digital learning and accessibility to technical education, with more than half using environments based on remote collaboration and micro-simulation technologies [2]. However, traditional approaches to virtual laboratories are often limited to individual activities and static learning scenarios, with limited real-time interactivity and no support for collaborative problem solving [3,4].
The concept of the digital twins—that is, the creation of a dynamic digital counterpart of a physical or theoretical system—is becoming increasingly important in educational technology [4]. Its application in e-learning enables the development of flexible, realistic, and configurable simulations of electronic circuits, where the behavior of the systems accurately approximates the actual operation of hardware equipment [5].
In this context, this article proposes a multiplayer virtual laboratory for electronic circuit design, based on digital twins technology [6]. The system allows multiple users to interact simultaneously with the same simulated circuit, enhancing collaborative learning and active participation. This approach aims to bridge the gap between theoretical teaching and practical application, offering a sustainable and scalable solution for modern electronics education [7].
2. Background and Related Work
Advancements in digital learning technologies have significantly transformed science and engineering education, especially in science and engineering curricula involving experimental work. Traditional labs, while effective, often present challenges such as limited access, safety constraints, high costs, and scheduling difficulties [8]. In response, virtual laboratories have emerged as a flexible and scalable alternative, enabling students to engage with experimental content in a safe and repeatable environment [9].
Among these innovations, virtual reality (VR) environments have been shown to enhance learners’ conceptual understanding, motivation, and hands-on skills [10]. VR-based labs allow for immersive experiences that mimic real-world settings, offering learners the opportunity to practice procedures and interact with equipment in a simulated but realistic context [11]. Research has consistently shown that students using VR labs often demonstrate improved learning outcomes compared to those following conventional instructional methods [12].
A particularly promising development is the integration of digital twins technology in education. Digital twins are dynamic, data-driven virtual replicas of physical systems that can be used to simulate, monitor, and control laboratory setups in real time [13]. In the educational context, they support personalized learning by enabling students to explore processes and troubleshoot systems interactively, often with minimal need for physical resources or supervision [14].
Equally important is the role of collaboration and multiplayer interaction in virtual lab environments. Multiplayer virtual labs allow students to engage in cooperative activities, fostering teamwork, communication, and shared problem-solving [15]. Such collaborative settings not only reflect the realities of professional scientific work but also enhance cognitive engagement and knowledge retention [16].
Gamification techniques—such as challenges, feedback loops, and achievement systems—are also increasingly employed within virtual labs to boost learner motivation [17]. When thoughtfully integrated, these elements can make complex scientific content more accessible and engaging, especially in self-directed or remote learning contexts [18].
The use of digital twins and virtual laboratories in technical education has seen a significant surge in recent years, with a growing body of research showcasing innovative ways these tools are being implemented to enhance learning. One such study by Korsoveczki, Vasváry, Szarka, and Sarvajcz presents the development of a digital twin of a five-degree-of-freedom industrial robotic arm. This system is specifically tailored for engineering education and is designed to provide students with a realistic, hands-on experience without the need for physical hardware. The simulation platform allows for dynamic modeling and control of robotic systems, giving learners insights into real-world engineering scenarios in a safe and cost-effective environment. Beyond technical accuracy, the digital twin emphasizes pedagogical utility, offering interfaces that help bridge theory with practice. This approach reduces the gap between classroom-based learning and industrial application, a vital step for modern robotics education, especially in institutions where access to expensive robotic equipment is limited. The study reinforces the argument that interactive simulation tools can make abstract engineering concepts more tangible for students [19].
Another significant contribution to the evolution of educational digital twins is the work by Zhou, Oveissi, and Langrish, who explore the application of augmented reality (AR) in chemical engineering education. Their research details a progressive transition from traditional virtual labs toward more immersive and interactive educational digital twin environments. Through AR-enhanced simulations, students can interact with chemical processes and lab setups virtually, offering an enriched understanding of complex engineering systems. This hybridization of virtual laboratories and AR technology allows for the visualization of otherwise invisible processes, such as molecular interactions or thermodynamic flows. Furthermore, it encourages exploratory learning, where students are not merely passive recipients of information but active participants in experimental tasks. Zhou and colleagues argue that such tools provide pedagogical benefits far beyond those of conventional simulations, especially in developing spatial awareness and operational understanding. Their study showcases how integrating AR with digital twins can foster deeper cognitive engagement and retention in STEM education [20].
In the field of electrical and electronic engineering, Jamshidi introduces a digital twin framework aimed at modeling complex electronic circuits using an Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). This intelligent modeling approach enhances the realism and accuracy of remote training environments by providing responsive and adaptive circuit simulations. The proposed system goes beyond static representation and incorporates machine learning elements that allow the digital twin to learn from user interactions and adjust outputs accordingly. This is particularly beneficial in scenarios involving nonlinear or time-variant components, where traditional simulations often fall short. The study highlights how intelligent digital twins can serve as advanced educational tools, replicating the unpredictable nature of real-world electronics with high fidelity. By simulating circuit behavior under a wide range of conditions, students can explore fault diagnosis, design optimization, and system behavior more thoroughly. This type of intelligent digital twin not only improves students’ technical skills but also prepares them for problem-solving in real engineering contexts [21].
Further advancing the field, Taylor, Muwaffak, and their colleagues propose a novel integration of conversational artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual reality (VR) into digital twin laboratories [22]. Their research focuses on optimizing the effectiveness of immersive simulations by embedding natural language interfaces that allow learners to interact conversationally with the digital environment. This creates a more intuitive and personalized learning experience, where students can ask questions, receive real-time feedback, and navigate complex scenarios with guided assistance. The VR component adds another layer of immersion, turning conventional lab simulations into interactive 3D spaces that mimic real-life laboratories. These enhancements not only increase student engagement but also support differentiated instruction, enabling personalized pathways based on individual learning styles and progress. Taylor et al. argue that such systems promote deeper learning and greater autonomy, especially beneficial in remote or hybrid learning environments where physical instructor presence is limited. Their work underscores the potential of converging multiple emerging technologies to enrich educational outcomes.
Lastly, Kobayashi, Goumans, and their co-authors delve into the realm of computational chemistry with a focus on delivering fully remote laboratory experiences [23]. Their study outlines the challenges and solutions involved in establishing virtual teaching laboratories that maintain the rigor and hands-on nature of traditional chemistry courses. Unlike simpler simulations, the authors implemented high-fidelity computational tools that allow students to conduct real scientific investigations, including molecular modeling and quantum chemical calculations. By providing structured yet flexible access to these advanced tools, the virtual labs support meaningful experimentation and collaborative learning across geographical boundaries. Importantly, their approach emphasizes not just the transmission of content, but the development of scientific thinking and research skills. The researchers also address key challenges such as ensuring equitable access to computational resources, maintaining student motivation, and creating realistic workflows that parallel in-person labs. Their success in overcoming these obstacles highlights the viability of digital twins as substitutes for physical laboratories in complex scientific fields, setting a precedent for future digital education initiatives.
Overall, the convergence of virtual labs, VR, digital twins, multiplayer infrastructure, and gamification forms a powerful framework for reimagining laboratory-based education. This combined approach offers rich, interactive, and scalable learning environments that are particularly suited to the needs of modern science and engineering students.
3. Materials and Methods
The primary objective of this research was to develop, implement, and evaluate a multi-purpose virtual laboratory for collaborative electronic circuit design. The application is based on digital twin architecture and utilizes real-time technologies for synchronized collaboration between users. The virtual lab was designed to simulate basic circuit assembly scenarios that can be physically implemented with Arduino and ESP32 microcontrollers, using common electronic components such as resistors, capacitors, LEDs, and cables.
The platform was designed to incorporate key elements of authentic learning through interactive simulation, collaborative work, and guided exploration. The learning scenario begins with the selection of a circuit to be implemented, which is presented with an illustrated card and accompanying instructions. The user is asked to connect the appropriate components (resistors, capacitors, LEDs, etc.) to the digital breadboard and verify the correctness of the connection. The platform provides immediate feedback in case of incorrect actions (e.g., wrong connections or polarity), enhancing the learning process through trial and error. Voice communication allows interaction between users, enhancing collaboration and the exchange of ideas during circuit implementation. Although no automated assessment or progress monitoring system is currently integrated, the structure of the application promotes exploratory and experiential learning in a risk-free environment, reinforcing the connection between theory and practice.
The implementation was carried out in the Unity engine (v2021.3.x LTS), using the Photon PUN 2 and Photon Voice packages, which support multi-user functionality, action synchronization, and voice communication. The application follows three distinct operating scenes, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2: (1) Login, where the user enters their name and connects to the network using the ConnectUsingSettings method; (2) Lobby, where they can create or join collaboration rooms; and (3) Game, where the main interactive circuit assembly experience takes place.
Figure 1.
Login and lobby interfaces.
Figure 2.
Game scene and customization capabilities.
The main virtual environment is designed as an interactive workshop room. The user can select the desired components from circuit configuration tables and place them in the workspace. The connection between components is made by selecting two points and creating a cable, which is displayed in real time and automatically synchronized for all users in the room. Interactions are implemented through C# scripts that manage the connection logic and circuit performance. Communication with the Photon server is based on a unique application ID and automatic region selection for optimal connection performance.
The application incorporates key learning resources that enhance the educational experience of users. Specifically, it includes dynamic selection tables of circuits to be implemented, integrated user instructions and defined objectives for each scenario, as well as visual and functional representations of real electronic components. In addition, voice communication is provided, which facilitates collaboration between users during the activity, while the shared workspace allows simultaneous and synchronized intervention by all team members.
The concept of digital twins in this work is based on the representation of physical devices (Arduino, ESP32, etc.) within the virtual environment, as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4, with faithful reproduction of their functionality and connectivity behavior. Although the current version of the application does not communicate with live data from physical devices (live data stream), the virtual device is fully implementable in the physical world, thus constituting a functional model based on specifications.
Figure 3.
Digital circuit assembly.
Figure 4.
Team interaction and collaboration.
To ensure the stability and performance of the application in real time, internal load tests were conducted in rooms with up to 15 users present simultaneously. The number of rooms is dynamically scalable and is only limited by the computing power of the server. Under medium-speed connection conditions (10–20 Mbps), the average latency for synchronization actions ranged between 80 and 120 ms, while the required bandwidth per user ranged from 0.5 to 1.2 Mbps for basic operation with active voice communication. Voice data is managed through the Photon Voice framework, which uses temporary UDP transmission with built-in encryption, without storage or recording on servers. Audio data is transmitted in real time and automatically deleted after the connection ends. Users are identified by pseudonyms (Photon NickName), and no personal or identifiable information is stored. Network management is supported by load-balancing mechanisms (RPC throttling and network culling), which ensure stable performance even under conditions of increased activity, such as simultaneous interactions of multiple users in the same workspace.
Twelve undergraduate students participated in the experimental evaluation of the application, divided into two equal groups: the first with experience in microcontrollers and circuit design, and the second with no previous relevant experience.
The participants were divided based on their self-reported previous experience with electronic circuits and microcontrollers (e.g., use of Arduino, Proteus, etc.). The distribution was based on the students’ own statements. The present phase of the research was preliminary and exploratory in nature, and the findings concern the subjective evaluation of the environment by users with different levels of familiarity with the subject.
Before interacting with the application, all participants attended a 15 min introductory presentation with instructions for use and objectives. They then worked in groups of 2–3 to implement the proposed circuit (LED-resistor-capacitor).
After completing the activity, the students filled out an anonymous user experience questionnaire, which evaluated five key dimensions: ease of use, quality of collaboration, realism of experience, learning value, and intention to use in the future. The responses were collected on a five-point Likert scale and analyzed statistically using descriptive measures (mean, standard deviation). The effect of previous experience was also examined through a comparative analysis between the two groups.
The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of ethics in educational research. No personal data, photographs, videos, or any other information that could identify the participants was collected. Student participation was voluntary and took place after they had been informed and had signed a consent form. Since no sensitive or identifiable data was recorded or processed, it was not deemed necessary to submit the study for approval by an ethics and deontology committee.
Voice communication between users was supported by Photon Voice technology, which uses a secure transmission protocol (UDP with built-in encryption) and does not record or store conversations on servers. Voice transmission is limited exclusively to the duration of the session, takes place in real time, and is automatically deleted after disconnection. Participants appear within the application under pseudonyms (Photon NickNames), without the use of identifiable personal data. In addition, all students were informed in advance about how voice communication works and gave their consent to participate in the research activity.
4. Results
The experimental evaluation of the virtual platform was carried out as part of a small-scale pilot study involving twelve undergraduate students. The participants were divided into two equal groups of six individuals, based on their self-reported experience in designing electronic circuits and using microcontrollers (such as Arduino or Raspberry Pi). The first group included students who reported previous exposure to relevant technologies, either through academic courses or through personal/extracurricular projects. In contrast, the second group consisted of students with no substantial experience in using electronic design tools or programming embedded systems.
The distribution of participants based on self-reported experience allowed for the observation of possible differences in the perception and utilization of the platform between novice and more experienced users. Although the self-reporting method may involve a degree of subjectivity or inaccuracy, it was deemed appropriate for the initial stages of the evaluation, where the main objective was to investigate the subjective experience of users.
The evaluation process included guided navigation of the platform, completion of a series of predefined activities, and, finally, completion of a questionnaire about the user experience. The questionnaire focused on aspects such as usability, sense of collaboration, perception of learning, and cognitive engagement. In addition, students had the opportunity to freely submit comments, suggestions for improvement, or describe difficulties they encountered while using the application.
The questionnaire consisted of ten statements on a five-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree). The statistical analysis of the responses was performed at the level of the total sample, but also separately for each category of experience. Table 1 presents the results in terms of mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) per statement.
Table 1.
Mean values and standard deviations for each question.
The overall results show that students have a really positive attitude toward the application. The highest scores appear in statements related to learning value and intention to reuse the application (statements 6 and 9, respectively), with an average of 4.67 and 4.75. Also, the level of cooperation and interaction, both through voice communication and avatar movement, was rated just as positive.
In order to investigate the effect of previous experience on microcontrollers, the averages of the responses per group were calculated and are presented in Table 2. The results showed that both groups evaluated the application positively, but there were some differences. Students with experience seemed to value the technical capabilities of the environment more (average for statement 6: 4.83 vs. 4.50), while students without experience reported greater enhancement of understanding (statement 8: 4.67 vs. 4.17), indicating the platform’s ability to support the education of novice users.
Table 2.
Mean values and standard deviations for each question (students with experience).
Table 2 presents the mean values and standard deviations of the responses for each statement in the questionnaire, separated for students with previous experience in circuits and those without such experience. For each statement, a statistical comparison was made between the two groups using the nonparametric Mann–Whitney U test, which is suitable for small sample data and Likert-type variables (ordinal scale), where normal distribution is not documented. The last column of the table includes the corresponding p-values for each test. In all cases, the p-values ranged between 0.10 and 1.00, exceeding the level of statistical significance (p < 0.05). This means that no statistically significant differences were found between the two groups of participants in any of the ten statements. This finding suggests that, regardless of whether they had previous experience with microcontrollers and circuits, participants evaluated the application in a similar way in terms of usability, interactivity, relevance, perceived learning value, and their intention to use it in the future. The absence of statistically significant differences reinforces the documentation of the usability and accessibility of the environment for all users, regardless of their level of familiarity.
From qualitative observations during the sessions, a highly engaged student body, active dialogue, and a collaborative approach to problem-solving were noted. It was also noteworthy that all participants successfully completed the proposed activity (connecting a circuit with LEDs) without the need for significant external intervention.
Overall, the results demonstrate that the implemented application offers a functional, engaging, and educationally beneficial environment for teaching electronic circuits, while appearing to effectively meet the needs of both experienced and novice students. The evaluation supports the continuation and further strengthening of such virtual laboratories as part of modern approaches to STEM education.
5. Discussion
In this study, a multiplayer virtual platform based on digital twins technology was designed and evaluated for teaching electronic circuit design. The system enabled students to collaborate simultaneously in a simulated classroom environment, providing voice communication, shared actions through avatars, and multiple viewing options. The technological implementation was based on Unity Engine and the plugin Photon PUN 2, achieving reliable synchronization and interaction between users.
Although the current implementation does not support live data streaming from physical equipment to the virtual platform, the virtual environment functions as a model-based digital twin. Each circuit implemented in the virtual lab corresponds exactly to real circuits that can be built with microcontrollers, such as Arduino or ESP32, while behaviors and operating rules are simulated with high fidelity. The decision not to incorporate live data streaming was deliberate, as the aim of the system is to provide a fully digital simulation of the laboratory experience, without requiring students to own or set up physical equipment. This ensures equal access and educational use of the environment regardless of users’ technical or financial constraints.
The experimental evaluation with 12 students, divided into groups with and without prior experience in microcontrollers, showed high levels of satisfaction. Participants particularly appreciated the interactivity and collaborativeness of the environment, while novice users seemed to benefit significantly in terms of understanding basic principles. The voice communication and camera switching features helped to enhance the sense of presence and active participation.
This study has some limitations that are worth pointing out. The evaluation sample was limited (12 participants) and did not include a control group or objective performance measurements, which limits the ability to generalize the results in terms of learning effectiveness. Furthermore, the current version of the environment does not support connection to physical devices via live data streaming, which differentiates its operation from a fully implemented digital twin solution. Future work will focus on incorporating pre- and post-tests of knowledge, recording objective performance indicators (such as completion time and number of errors), and technically extending the platform to synchronize with real hardware (e.g., Arduino via serial connection or Wi-Fi) in order to further enhance the realism and adaptability of the environment.
6. Conclusions
This project highlighted the development of a multi-user virtual platform based on digital twin technology. The platform offers a dynamic, interactive, and collaborative learning environment, specifically designed to support education in electronic circuit design. Through the use of digital twins, learners are able to interact with realistic simulations of physical systems, strengthening the link between theory and practice, even when there is no access to a physical laboratory.
The application was positively evaluated by users as particularly user-friendly, making it easy to navigate and use for educational purposes, even by students with no previous experience in similar digital environments. The platform has not only enhanced the understanding of basic concepts in the field of electronics, but also active collaboration between users, enabling joint problem-solving and the exchange of ideas in real time. This collaborative nature makes the technology ideal for multi-level learning environments, where individuals with different cognitive backgrounds coexist.
Despite the limitations of the sample and methodology used in the study, such as the small population size and short trial period, the findings are encouraging. The use of virtual laboratories for multiple users appears to be an effective and innovative complement to traditional education, especially in technical subjects where laboratory equipment is expensive or difficult to obtain. The flexibility of the platform allows for the implementation of distance learning courses without sacrificing the quality of learning or interaction with the subject matter.
In summary, the development of this versatile virtual platform highlights the potential of digital twins as tools for educational innovation. With the ability to simulate realistic environments, facilitate collaboration, and support students with different needs and levels, such technologies herald a new standard for technical and professional education in the future.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, K.S., N.E.N. and N.G.; Methodology, K.S. and N.E.N.; Software, K.S. and M.S.; Validation, N.E.N.; Formal analysis, N.E.N. and A.M.; Investigation, N.E.N.; Resources, M.S.; Data curation, A.T.T. and N.G.; Writing—original draft, K.S. and N.E.N.; Writing—review & editing, N.E.N., A.M., E.G., A.T.T. and N.G.; Supervision, A.M., E.G., A.T.T. and N.G.; Project administration, A.T.T. and N.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
- OECD. The State of Higher Education; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, D.; Snider, C.; Nassehi, A.; Yon, J.; Hicks, B. Characterising the Digital Twin: A systematic literature review. CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 2020, 29, 36–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dichev, C.; Dicheva, D. Gamifying education: What is known, what is believed and what remains uncertain: A critical review. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 2017, 14, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawkinson, E. Automation in Education with Digital Twins: Trends and Issues. Int. J. Open Distance E-Learn. 2023, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baladoh, S.M.; Elgamal, A.F.; Abas, H.A. Virtual lab to develop achievement in electronic circuits for hearing-impaired students. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2017, 22, 2071–2085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, Y.; Niyato, D.; Leung, C.; Kim, D.I.; Zhu, K.; Feng, S.; Shen, X.; Miao, C. A Dynamic Hierarchical Framework for IoT-Assisted Digital Twin Synchronization in the Metaverse. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 268–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jaderberg, M.; Czarnecki, W.M.; Dunning, I.; Marris, L.; Lever, G.; Castañeda, A.G.; Beattie, C.; Rabinowitz, N.C.; Morcos, A.S.; Ruderman, A.; et al. Human-level performance in 3D multiplayer games with population-based reinforcement learning. Science 2019, 364, 859–865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zafeiropoulos, V.; Anastassakis, G.; Orphanoudakis, T.; Kalles, D.; Fanariotis, A.; Fotopoulos, V. The V-Lab VR Educational Application Framework. In Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Mobile Human-Computer Interaction, Athens, Greece, 26–29 September 2023; ACM: New York, NY, USA, 2023; pp. 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palmer, C.; Roullier, B.; Aamir, M.; Stella, L.; Diala, U.; Anjum, A.; Mcquade, F.; Cox, K.; Calvert, A. Virtual Reality Based Digital Twin System for Remote Laboratories and Online Practical Learning. Adv. Manuf. Technol. XXXIV 2021, 15, 277–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vergara, D.; Rubio, M.; Lorenzo, M. On the Design of Virtual Reality Learning Environments in Engineering. Multimodal Technol. Interact. 2017, 1, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paxinou, E.; Kalles, D.; Panagiotakopoulos, C.T.; Sgourou, A.; Verykios, V.S. An IRT-based approach to assess the learning gain of a virtual reality lab students’ experience. Intell. Decis. Technol. 2021, 15, 487–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almaatouq, A.; Becker, J.; Houghton, J.P.; Paton, N.; Watts, D.J.; Whiting, M.E. Empirica: A virtual lab for high-throughput macro-level experiments. Behav. Res. Methods 2021, 53, 2158–2171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gunes, V. A digital twin design methodology for control, simulation, and monitoring of fluidic circuits. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2024, 134, 3863–3875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Norambuena, N.; Ortega, J.; Muñoz-La Rivera, F.; Covarrubias, M.; Valín Rivera, J.L.; Ramírez, E.; Ketterer, C.I.G. Integrating Digital Twins of Engineering Labs into Multi-User Virtual Reality Environments. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shegog, R.; Lazarus, M.M.; Murray, N.G.; Diamond, P.M.; Sessions, N.; Zsigmond, E. Virtual Transgenics: Using a Molecular Biology Simulation to Impact Student Academic Achievement and Attitudes. Res. Sci. Educ. 2012, 42, 875–890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tokatlidis, C.; Tselegkaridis, S.; Rapti, S.; Sapounidis, T.; Papakostas, D. Hands-On and Virtual Laboratories in Electronic Circuits Learning—Knowledge and Skills Acquisition. Information 2024, 15, 672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palmer, C.; Roullier, B.; Aamir, M.; McQuade, F.; Stella, L.; Anjum, A.; Diala, U. Digital Twinning remote laboratories for online practical learning. Prod. Manuf. Res. 2022, 10, 519–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chugh, R.; Turnbull, D. Gamification in education: A citation network analysis using CitNetExplorer. Contemp. Educ. Technol. 2023, 15, ep405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Korsoveczki, G.; Vasváry, T.; Szarka, A.V.; Sarvajcz, K. Digital twin design of a 5 degrees of freedom industrial robotic arm for engineering education purposes. Meas. Sens. 2025, 38, 101323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, Z.; Oveissi, F.; Langrish, T. Applications of augmented reality (AR) in chemical engineering education: Virtual laboratory work demonstration to digital twin development. Comput. Chem. Eng. 2024, 188, 108784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jamshidi, M.B.; Lotfi, S.; Siahkamari, H.; Blecha, T.; Talla, J.; Peroutka, Z. An intelligent digital twinning approach for complex circuits. Appl. Soft Comput. 2024, 154, 111327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, M.V.; Muwaffak, Z.; Penny, M.R.; Szulc, B.R.; Brown, S.; Merritt, A.; Hilton, S.T. Optimising digital twin laboratories with conversational AIs: Enhancing immersive training and simulation through virtual reality. Digit. Discov. 2025, 4, 1134–1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kobayashi, R.; Goumans, T.P.M.; Carstensen, N.O.; Soini, T.M.; Marzari, N.; Timrov, I.; Poncé, S.; Linscott, E.B.; Sewell, C.J.; Pizzi, G.; et al. Virtual Computational Chemistry Teaching Laboratories—Hands-On at a Distance. J. Chem. Educ. 2021, 98, 3163–3171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).