Simplex Lattice Design and X-ray Diffraction for Analysis of Soil Structure: A Case of Cement-Stabilised Compacted Tills Reinforced with Steel Slag and Slaked Lime
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Approach
2.2. Sample Preparation
- Soil type A had the following characteristics: particle density ; the optimum moisture content (OMC) according to the modified Proctor compaction test was 6.1%; the dry density was ; the natural water content was () = 9.8%; the liquid limit measured by a cone penetrometer () was 19.3%; the plasticity index was <10.
- Soil type B had the following characteristics: particle density, ; OMC according to the modified Proctor compaction test, 9.2%; dry density, ; natural water content, () = 14.6%; liquid limit by cone penetrometer, () 23.9%; plasticity index < 11.9.
- Soil type C included only measurements of the particle density and . Thus, the particle density for soil type C was and = 13.0%; plasticity, index < 10. The Table 1 summarises the performed tests.
2.3. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
2.4. Binders
2.5. Compaction
2.6. Moisture Condition Value (MCV)
2.7. Simplex Lattice Design
- (a)
- Linear model:
- (b)
- Quadratic model:
- (c)
- Special cubic model:
3. Results
3.1. MCV
3.2. UCS
3.2.1. Measurements of UCS on 7th Day
3.2.2. Measurements of UCS on 28th Day
3.2.3. Measurements of UCS on 90th Day
4. Discussion
- 1.
- The increase in strength was observed in all the tested binders; however, cement demonstrated the best effects, which resulted in quick soil stabilisation.
- 2.
- The UCS increase in soil stabilised by the OPC–lime blend was similar to that of GGBFS. However, a binder containing GGBFS gave lower values.
- 3.
- The measurements on day 7 of curing showed that the blend of GGBFS and slaked lime worked similarly to the pure slaked lime. However, on day 90 of curing, there was a notable effect on soil strength from the GGBFS–lime blend.
- 4.
- The specimens stabilised with GGBFS demonstrated the lowest UCS values on day 7 of curing. However, on the 28th day of curing, they performed similarly to those stabilised by lime.
- 5.
- A slow increase in the UCS values for the lime-stabilised specimens was explained by the low clay content in soil classified as type A. The slaked lime performed better as a binder, and had a stronger effect on soil type B.
- 6.
- The GGBFS–lime blend demonstrated benefit on the UCS of soil and performed approximately in a similar way as OPC for soil strength after 90 days of curing.
- 7.
- The limit for clay content in soil should be 10% for the effects from lime.
- 8.
- There were no significant variations in the effects from blends of the three binders with regard to the reduction in soil compaction, as reflected in the MCV values.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ANOVA | Analysis of variance |
GGBS | Ground granulated blast furnace slag |
MCA | Moisture condition apparatus |
MCV | Moisture condition value |
OMC | Optimum moisture content |
OPC | Ordinary Portland cement |
SGI | Swedish Geotechnical Institute |
SIS | Swedish Institute for Standards |
UCS | Uniaxial compressive strength |
USCS | Unified Soil Classification System |
WL | Liquid limit |
WN | Natural water content |
XRD | X-ray diffraction |
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Soil Type A | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Recipe | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
OPC | 0.00 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 0.83 | 1.67 | 0.42 | 0.42 |
Lime | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.83 | 0.42 | 0.42 | 1.67 |
GGBFS | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.83 | 0.42 | 1.67 | 0.42 |
Soil Type B | |||||||||||
Recipe | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
OPC | 0.00 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 0.83 | 1.67 | 0.42 | 0.42 |
Lime | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.83 | 0.42 | 0.42 | 1.67 |
GGBFS | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.83 | 0.42 | 1.67 | 0.42 |
Soil Type C | |||||||||||
Recipe | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
OPC | 0.00 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | – | – | – | – |
Lime | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 2.50 | 1.25 | – | – | – | – |
GGBFS | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.25 | 2.50 | 1.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | – | – | – | – |
Stabilising Agent * | G | GW | GM | S | CS | CH |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | ++ | ++ | ++ | + | + | − |
B | ++ | ++ | ++ | ++ | ++ | + |
C | ++ | ++ | ++ | ++ | ++ | − |
D | + | + | ++ | − | + | ++ |
C (CaO + GP cement) | − | − | + | − | + | ++ |
C (CaO + GGBFS) | − | ++ | ++ | − | + | + |
E | ++ | ++ | + | + | − | − |
F | ++ | ++ | + | + | − | − |
G | + | ++ | ++ | − | ++ | + |
Soil Component | Chemical Formula | Binders |
---|---|---|
Organic matter | – | Mechanical |
Sand | Clay loam; asphalt | |
Allophane | Lime (CaO) | |
Kaolinite | Sand; cement; lime | |
Illite | Cement; lime | |
Montmorillonite | Lime (CaO) |
Shape Form | Category 1 | Category 2 | Category 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Cube specimens | 4.5 | 7.5 | 10.0 |
Cylindrical specimens | 3.6 | 6.0 | 8.0 |
Stabilising Agent | 10% CaO | 10% OPC | 10% OPC + 2% CaO |
---|---|---|---|
UCS: MPa | 1.010 | 0.790 | 1.420 |
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Lindh, P.; Lemenkova, P. Simplex Lattice Design and X-ray Diffraction for Analysis of Soil Structure: A Case of Cement-Stabilised Compacted Tills Reinforced with Steel Slag and Slaked Lime. Electronics 2022, 11, 3726. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11223726
Lindh P, Lemenkova P. Simplex Lattice Design and X-ray Diffraction for Analysis of Soil Structure: A Case of Cement-Stabilised Compacted Tills Reinforced with Steel Slag and Slaked Lime. Electronics. 2022; 11(22):3726. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11223726
Chicago/Turabian StyleLindh, Per, and Polina Lemenkova. 2022. "Simplex Lattice Design and X-ray Diffraction for Analysis of Soil Structure: A Case of Cement-Stabilised Compacted Tills Reinforced with Steel Slag and Slaked Lime" Electronics 11, no. 22: 3726. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11223726
APA StyleLindh, P., & Lemenkova, P. (2022). Simplex Lattice Design and X-ray Diffraction for Analysis of Soil Structure: A Case of Cement-Stabilised Compacted Tills Reinforced with Steel Slag and Slaked Lime. Electronics, 11(22), 3726. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11223726