Resource Targets in Europe and Worldwide: An Overview
Abstract
:1. Resource Objectives—Definition and Scope
- Efficiency targets strive for increasing a specific value or physical quantity, e.g., resource productivity = gross domestic product : resource use (in analogy to labor productivity) or resource intensity = resource use : gross domestic product (as the inverse of productivity). Thereby, resource efficiency is the overarching concept achieved by increasing resource productivity or reducing resource intensity [22].
- Absolute targets limit resource consumption or specify a reduction scale with specific figures for the whole economy, sectors, regions, or per capita.
2. Brief History of Resource Objectives at International and European Level
3. Resource Targets in National Programs, Strategies, and Regulations
Country | Tax/Fee 1 | Object of Taxation 2 | Year of introduction | Taxation rate 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cyprus | Materials extracted from quarries | Extracted Material | 1990 | 0.26 € per ton |
Denmark | Duty on raw materials | Mineral raw materials | 1990 | Since 1990 fixed on 5 DKK pro m3 = 0.67 €/m3 |
Estonia | Mineral resources charge | Dolomite, Granite, Gravel, Sand, Limestone, Clay, Peat, Phosphate Stones, Oil Shale | 1991 | Between 0.57 €/m3 for rubble and 3.03 €/m3 for high-quality Dolomite |
Lithuania | Minerals extraction charge | Plaster, Chalk, Limestone, Clay, Dolomites, Sand, Gravel, Soil | 1991 | 0.04–0.22 €/m3 |
Czech Republic | Fee for extracted minerals | Minerals | 1992 | Up to 10% of market price |
Latvia | Materials extraction charge | Clay, Ton, Dolomites, Sand, Gravel, Limestone, Quartz Sand, Plaster, Soil | 1995 | 0.01–0.35 €/m3 |
Croatia | Extraction charge Mining charge | Gravel, Sand Mineral Raw Materials | 1996 1959 | 0.41 and 0.55 €/m3 2.6% of revenue |
Sweden | Natural gravel tax | Gravel, Sand, Boulder, Pebble | 1996 | 1.44 €/ton |
Bulgaria | Mining charge | Clay, Quarry stone, Sand, Gravel | 1997 | 0.05–0.15 €/m3 0.03–0.08 €/m3 |
France | Tax on extracted minerals | Granulate | 1999 | 0.20 €/ton |
UK | Aggregate levy | Aggregates | 2002 | 2.30 €/ton |
Poland | Tax on the extraction of minerals | Copper Silver | 2012 | 992.7 €/t 122 €/kg |
4. Classifying Input-Oriented Resource Targets
4.1. Evaluation Criteria and Points of Discussion
4.2. Summary of the Identified Objectives
- •
- Qualitative increase of resource efficiency/productivity: present in almost all sustainability strategies and programs;
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- Absolute increase of resource efficiency/productivity, e.g., the resource productivity target of 3,700 EUR/ton in Japan;
- •
- Proportional increase of resource efficiency/productivity, e.g., a resource efficiency increase +50% [factor 2] in Austria and Germany until 2020, factor 4 until 2030 in Italy, +15% in China until 2015;
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- Proportional reduction of consumption, e.g., by 80% until 2020 (in comparison to 2007) in Hungary and Italy, although without further reporting duties;
- •
- Qualitative reduction of consumption, e.g., EU Raw Materials Initiative;
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- Absolute consumption or extraction limits, e.g., a maximum of 12 million tons gravel in Sweden, 20 million tons oil shale in Estonia;
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- Recovery quotas, e.g., 60% of the phosphate from waste water in Sweden;
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- Minimum recycling quotas, e.g., 70% of the construction minerals (EU waste directive), 90% in Belgium, 50% of the metals from household and domestic wastes in the EU;
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- Minimum input quotas, e.g., 25% of the construction materials in UK “from responsible sourcing”;
- •
- 3R-Strategies, e.g., Circular Economy Law in China, Japan.
5. Simulation and Modeling
6. Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix
Target | Raw material group | Region | Name of the approach | Target year | Base year | Target perspective | Governance level | (a) quantitative vs. qualitative | (b) absolute reduction vs. efficiency | (c) shift of problems | (d) indicator(s) | (e) part of a target system | (f) specification | (g) implementation/reporting duties | (h) validity | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
macro economy | sectoral targets | interim targets | |||||||||||||||
International | |||||||||||||||||
Increase of Resource Efficiency by 15% | All Materials | China | 12th National Five Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development | 2015 | 2011 | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | GDP/A(adjusted) DMC | yes | yes | n/a | no | partly | yes |
3R—Reduce, Reuse, Recycle | All Materials | China | Circular Economy Promotion Law (CEPL) | n/a | n/a | short-term | sectoral | qualitative | relative | no | no | yes | no | yes | no | yes | yes |
Doubling of green investments in clean technology, Recycling and renewable Energies ($468 bn) | / | China | 12th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development (2011–2015) | 2011 | 2015 | short-term | sectoral | qualitative | relative | no | n/a | yes | yes | n/a | no | yes | yes |
Resource Productivity Target 3,700 EUR/t (6,700 EUR/t without Stones and Earths) (+50%) | All Materials | Japan | FP Sound Material-Cycle Society (2008) | 2015 | 2000 | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | GDP/DMI | yes | yes | no | yes | yes | yes |
Efficient Use of Resources | Minerals, Metals | Japan | Law on the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources (2000) | 2000 | n/a | short-term | sectoral | qualitative | relative | partly | MFA | yes | no | yes | yes | yes | yes |
Waste Limit 23 m/t (−60%) | Waste | Japan | SMCS (2008) | 2015 | 2000 | short-term | national | quantitative | absolute | no | t | yes | yes | no | yes | yes | yes |
Recovering Quota 14%–15% (40%–50% Increase) | All Materials | Japan | SMCS (2008) | 2015 | 2000 | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | DMI | yes | yes | no | yes | yes | yes |
Minimum Recycling Quota 95% | Construction Minerals | Japan | Construction Materials Recycling Law (2002) | 2010 | 2002 | short-term | sectoral | quantitative | relative | no | % | yes | no | yes | no | yes | yes |
Recycling + Substitution | Critical Metals | Japan | Rare Metals Strategy (2009) | n/a | n/a | n/a | national | qualitative | n/a | n/a | none | no | yes | no | no | no | yes |
Efficient Use of Resources | All Materials | South Korea | Act on the Promotion of Saving and Recycling of Resources (2007) | 2013 | 2009 | short-term | national | qualitative | relative | no | none | no | yes | no | no | no | yes |
Green Recovery Program (83,6 Bn. USD = 4% des BIP) | Mainly Energy | South Korea | Green New Deal (2009–2013) | 2013 | 2009 | short-term | national | qualitative | n/a | n/a. | % | n/a | yes | n/a | n/a | k.A. | yes |
Sustainable Use of Resources | 38 Materials, Products, and Services | USA | Sustainable Materials Management (2009) | 2020 | 2009 | short-term | sectoral | qualitative | relative | partly | MFA, IO, LCA | no | no | yes | no | no | yes |
Increase of the Recycling Quota | (critical) Metals (Energy Sector) | USA | Critical Materials Strategy (2011) | n/a | n/a | n/a | national | qualitative | relative | no | none | yes | no | no | no | yes | yes |
Europe | |||||||||||||||||
Increase of resource efficiency | Minerals, Metals | Europe | EU Roadmap (2011) | 2020 | 2011 | short-term | international, EU | qualitative | relative | partly | GDP/DMC | yes | yes | yes | yes | partly | yes |
Increase of resource productivity and consumption reduction | Minerals, Metals, critical metals | Europe | Raw Materials Initiative (2008/2011) | n/a | n/a | n/a | international, EU | qualitative | relative | no | n.d. | yes | yes | no | no | yes | yes |
Recycling Quota 100% | abiotic (Minerals) (Phosphate) | Europe | EP resolution on a resource-efficient Europe (2012) | 2020 | 2012 | short-term | international, EU | quantitative | relative | no | % | yes | yes | no | no | no | yes |
Minimum Recycling Quota 70% | Construction Minerals | Europe | Waste Framework Directive (2008) | 2020 | 2010 | short-term | international, EU | quantitative | relative | no | % | yes | yes | yes | no | yes | yes |
Minimum Recycling Quota 50% | Metallic waste from households | Europe | Waste Framework Directive (2008) | 2020 | 2010 | short-term | international, EU | quantitative | relative | no | % | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes |
National | |||||||||||||||||
Increase of Resource Productivity by Factor 4 | All Materials | Austria | NSTRAT (2002) | 2008–2012 | 1990–1997 | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | MFA/NAMEA | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes |
Increase of Resource Productivity by Factor 4 to 10 | All Materials | Austria | REAP (2012) | 2050 | 2008 | long-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | GDP/DMC | yes | yes | no | yes | yes | yes |
Increase of Resource efficiency by 50%; Reduction of Consumption by 20% | All Materials | Austria | REAP (2012) | 2020 | 2008 | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | GDP/DMC | yes | yes | no | yes | yes | yes |
Minimum Recycling Quota 90% | c&d waste | Belgium (Brussels) | Waste Prevention and Management Plan | 2020 | 2010 | short-term | sectoral | quantitative | relative | partly | % | yes | no | yes | no | no | yes |
Consumption reduction | abiotic (Sand, gravel, tones etc.) | Denmark | Tax on raw materials | n/a | n/a | n/a | sectoral | quantitative | relative | no | t/yr | no | no | yes | partly | partly | yes |
Consumption reduction | Minerals | Estonia | Mineral resources extraction charge | n/a | n/a | n/a | sectoral | quantitative | relative | no | t/yr | no | no | yes | partly | partly | yes |
Limit of consumption 20 Mt Oil Shale/year | Oil Shale | Estonia | National Development Plan (2008-2015) | 2015 | 2008 | short-term | national | quantitative | absolute | no | t/yr | yes | yes | no | yes | yes | yes |
Increase of efficiency + Substitution | Construction Minerals | Estonia | National Development Plan for the Use of Construction Minerals 2011–2020 | 2020 | 2011 | short-term | sectoral | qualitative | relative | no | n/a | yes | no | yes | no | yes | yes |
Recovering Quota 60% | c&d waste | Estonia | National Development Plan (2011–2020) | 2020 | 2011 | short-term | sectoral | quantitative | relative | no | % | yes | no | yes | yes | yes | yes |
Intelligent use of resources | All Materials | Finland | National Resources Strategy (2009) | n/a | 2009 | long-term | national | qualitative | relative | no | none | yes | yes | no | no | yes | yes |
Increase of extraction up to 70 Mt (2008–2020) | Minerals, Metals, critical Metals | Finland | Minerals Strategy (2010) | 2020 | 2011 | long-term | sectoral | quantitative | absolute | no | t/y | yes | no | yes | no | no | yes |
Increase of resource efficiency | abiotic resources & material use | Germany | Resource efficiency program | 2020 | 2012 | short-term | national | qualitative | relative | partly | GDP/DMI + DMC cap + TMC + RME | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes |
(ProgRess) (2012) | |||||||||||||||||
Increase of resource productivity by factor 2 | Resource Productivity (abiotic resources) | Germany | Sustainability Strategy (2002) | 2020 | 1994 | middle-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | GDP real EUR / DMI abiot (t) | yes | yes | no | no | yes | yes |
Consumption Reduction | Construction Minerals | United Kingdom | Aggregates levy | n/a | n/a | n/a | sectoral | quantitative | relative | partly | DMC/GVA | yes | no | yes | partly | partly | yes |
Smart Consumption | All Materials | United Kingdom | SD Strategy (2005, 2010) | 2010 | 1990 | middle-term | national | qualitative | relative | partly | DMC/GDP | yes | yes | no | no | partly | yes |
Minimum Input 25% responsible sourcing (cert. quarries) | Construction Minerals | United Kingdom | Sustainable Construction Strategy (2008) | 2012 | 2008 | short-term | sectoral | quantitative | relative | no | % | yes | no | yes | yes | yes | yes |
Reduction of Material Intensity to 80% | All Materials | Hungary | National Environmental Technology Innovation Strategy (NETIS) (2011) | 2020 | 2007 | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | partly | DMC/GDP | yes | yes | yes | no | yes | yes |
Reduction of Consumption by 25% | All Materials | Italy | SD Strategy (2002) | 2010 | n/a | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | yes | TMR in t | yes | yes | no | no | n/a | yes |
Reduction of Consumption by 75% | All Materials | Italy | SD Strategy (2002) | 2030 | n/a | middle-term | national | quantitative | relative | yes | TMR in t | yes | yes | no | no | n/a | yes |
Reduction of Consumption by 90% | All Materials | Italy | SD Strategy (2002) | 2050 | n/a | long-term | national | quantitative | relative | yes | TMR in t | yes | yes | no | no | n/a | yes |
(Possible) increase of Resource Productivity by 3%–4%/year | All Materials | Romania | National SD Strategy (2008) | 2013 | 2008 | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | no | n/a | yes | yes | yes | yes | no | yes |
Increase of Resource Efficiency | Minerals | Slovenia | National Mineral Resource Management Program (2009) | n/a | n/a | n/a | sectoral | qualitative | relative | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | yes | n/a | n/a | yes |
Limit of Consumption 12 Mt/Year | abiotic (Minerals) (Gravel) | Sweden | Taxation of Gravel | 2010 | n/a | short-term | sectoral | quantitative | absolute | no | t/yr | no | no | yes | partly | partly | yes |
Minimum Recycling Quota (60% from Sewage) | abiotic (Minerals) (Phosphate) | Sweden | Interim Target | 2015 | n/a | short-term | national | quantitative | relative | no | % | yes | n/a | n/a | yes | no | yes |
Reduction of Consumption to “Footprint One” | All Materials | Switzerland | Cleantech Masterplan (2011) | n/a | 2011 | n/a | national | quantitative | absolute | yes | Footprint | yes | yes | no | no | no | yes |
Regional | |||||||||||||||||
Stable Level of Consumption | All Materials | Spain (Basque Country) | Environmental Strategy (2002–2020) | 2006 | 1998 | short-term | regional | quantitative | absolute | partly | GDP/DMC (€/Kg) (TMR) | yes | no | no | yes | no | no |
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Bahn-Walkowiak, B.; Steger, S. Resource Targets in Europe and Worldwide: An Overview. Resources 2015, 4, 597-620. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030597
Bahn-Walkowiak B, Steger S. Resource Targets in Europe and Worldwide: An Overview. Resources. 2015; 4(3):597-620. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030597
Chicago/Turabian StyleBahn-Walkowiak, Bettina, and Sören Steger. 2015. "Resource Targets in Europe and Worldwide: An Overview" Resources 4, no. 3: 597-620. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030597
APA StyleBahn-Walkowiak, B., & Steger, S. (2015). Resource Targets in Europe and Worldwide: An Overview. Resources, 4(3), 597-620. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030597