Organic Crop Production in Kazakhstan: Agronomic Solutions and Bioresources

Abstract

Crop production in Kazakhstan is characterized by vast resources, including over 200 M hectares of farmland and more than 23 M hectares of arable land located mainly in the arid zone with a short growing season. In 2023, the five most important crops in the country were spring wheat (12.5 M ha), spring barley (2.42 M ha), sunflower (1.13 M ha), flax (0.73 M ha), and winter wheat (0.59 M ha). Diverse agroecological conditions and low input farming represent good opportunities for the more sustainable use of resources through organic production. However, the area falling under certified organic farming recently varied from 0.1 to 0.3 M ha with wheat, flax, soybean and soybean meal, peas and lentils serving as the main commodities exported to Europe. Several factors limit organic farming development in the country, including the certification system, marketing, and the availability of crops, cultivars, and technologies. The current review summarizes the main organic agronomic practices and bioresources applicable in Kazakhstan into four main themes: crops and cultivars’ diversification; tillage systems for organic crops; crop nutrition; and protection. The technologies developed for organic farming in similar ecologies globally are highly relevant to Kazakhstan and need to be tested and adopted by producers. The lack of targeted cultivars and technology development for organic production in Kazakhstan impedes its progress and requires a longer-term producer-focused framework to extend related research.

1. Introduction

Kazakhstan is a land-locked country in central Asia with a total area of 2,724,900 square kilometers and a population of over 20 M people. Traditional nomadic culture turned into a settled way of life 100 years ago [1]. Agriculture combines livestock farming and limited areas of crops in regions suitable for production. Fundamental changes occurred in the 1960s when over 20 M ha of virgin land was brought into cultivation in the north of the country to satisfy the growing demand for grain in the USSR [1]. The use of traditional plow tillage resulted in widescale land degradation and dust storms. Soil conservation technology based on minimal tillage was developed and successfully applied across Kazakhstan. By the end of the 1980s, grain production in the north of the country was developing toward the more intensive use of inputs and irrigation to improve and stabilize yield. The 1990s witnessed an economic crisis which also impacted agriculture, including a drastic reduction in arable land, inputs, and production. With time, agriculture recovered and evolved into a competitive sector contributing 4% of the total GDP. Rural areas are home to around 45% of the country’s population, and agricultural work provides income for close to 30% of economically active inhabitants.

Crop production in Kazakhstan is characterized by a very diverse environment with several distinct agroclimatic zones [2]. This is primarily dryland farming with low inputs and low productivity. The average yield of cereals is in the range of 1.2–1.5 t/ha, and that of oil crops and legumes is around 1 t/ha. However, due to the vast land resources and growing agricultural area (over 23 M ha), the country produces a sufficient quantity of major commodities for the domestic market, and most crops have export potential. In 2024, the country exported over 8 M t of wheat grains and over 3 M t of flour, thus contributing to regional and global food security (www.faostat.org). The export routes for local produce cover long distances to reach ports on the open sea, which affects the competitiveness of Kazakh grain and other commodities. Adding value to local products is a high priority for crop production and processing in Kazakhstan. In this respect, an increase in organic production is certainly a viable option for both the domestic market and exports.

In 2022, nearly 96.4 million hectares of agricultural land worldwide were organic [3]. The regions with the largest organic agricultural land areas were Oceania (53.2 M ha) and Europe (18.5 M ha). Latin America followed, with 9.5 M hectares, succeeded by Asia, with 8.8 M hectares (9.2 percent), northern America, with 3.6 M hectares (3.8 percent), and Africa, with 2.7 M hectares (2.8 percent). Canada is similar to Kazakhstan in agroecology and farming systems [4], and its area of organic farming exceeded 1.5 M ha or 4% of arable land [5]. In Kazakhstan, there was barely over 200,000 ha of organic production, comprising nearly 0.4% of total cultivated land in 2023 [5]. Considering that crop production in Kazakhstan is low-input and export-oriented, organic farming certainly represents a great opportunity to improve the profitability of production and the sustainable use of resources.

There are several publications and reviews on the status of organic production in Kazakhstan, primarily addressing economic and regulation issues [5,6,7,8]. However, in practice, the farming community’s main challenge is agronomy and developing production technology that will comply with organic farming requirements to produce healthy and profitable products. Limited research in the country on this issue results in a lack of information and practices for organic producers.

Diverse bioresources for organic farming are being developed and are increasingly available to producers. Key bioresources include organic fertilizers, biofertilizers, and biopesticides, which provide alternatives to chemical-based products in attaining a safe and sustainable agricultural system [9]. Bioresources are naturally available, safe, and easily accessible products. The potential of these biological products in fostering soil microbial growth, plants’ productivity, and induced host immunity to diseases, alongside the promotion of healthy soil–microbe–plant relationships and preservation of the ecosystem processes, have been proven. The productive use of bioresources is considered strategic in attaining safe and sustainable food production. Some bioresources are available and used in Kazakhstan.

The main objective of the current review is to summarize the main agronomic practices, innovations, and bioresources applicable in Kazakhstan for four main themes: crops and cultivars’ diversification; tillage systems for organic crops; crop nutrition; and protection. The review context focuses on the current crop production practices in the existing agroclimatic zones.

2. Agroclimatic Zones and Crop Production in Kazakhstan

Crop production in Kazakhstan is characterized by a vast area of farmland (more than 200 million hectares) and arable land (more than 23 million hectares), which is located mainly in the arid zone with a short growing season. A desert occupies the central part of the country. Rainfall increases in the north and east have allowed for the practice of rainfed farming. In the southern regions, agriculture is concentrated at the foot of the mountains, where there is more precipitation, or in river valleys. There are five main agroclimatic zones in Kazakhstan (Figure 1).

• North (Akmola, Karagandy, Kostanay, and north Kazakhstan regions). This area serves as the primary cereal and oilseed production area with a total arable area exceeding 16 million hectares [2]. Rainfed agriculture is practiced under low rainfall conditions (250–350 mm annually) with a short growing season of approximately 100 days (May–August). The principal cultivated crops include spring wheat and barley; oilseeds (flax, sunflower, safflower, and rapeseed); and forage crops (primarily grasses) (

  Table 1. Cultivated area (M ha) of the main crops in the agroclimatic zones of Kazakhstan in 2023.

  Crop *	1—North	2—East	3—Southeast	4—South	5—West	Total
  Arable land	16.65	3.04	1.73	1.07	1.37	23.94
  Including irrigated	0.03	0.07	0.65	0.57	0.01	1.39
  Winter wheat	0.01	0.02	0.27	0.20	0.08	0.59
  Spring wheat	10.97	1.05	0.04	0.02	0.43	12.54
  Spring barley	1.51	0.24	0.45	0.06	0.16	2.42
  Oat	0.14	0.04	0	0	0	0.19
  Rice	0	0	0.01	0.09	0	0.10
  Buckwheat	0.04	0.07	0	0	0	0.11
  Dry peas	0.14	0.01	0	0	0	0.15
  Lentil	0.22	0	0	0	0	0.22
  Soybean	0.01	0	0.08	0	0	0.10
  Sunflower	0.32	0.72	0.02	0	0.06	1.13
  Safflower	0.12	0.01	0.07	0.09	0.10	0.39
  Flax	0.70	0.02	0	0	0	0.73
  Rapeseed	0.08	0.01	0	0	0	0.09
  Cotton	0	0	0	0.12	0	0.12
  Potato	0.06	0.04	0.05	0.02	0.01	0.18
  Vegetables	0.01	0.02	0.07	0.05	0.01	0.16
  Melons and watermelons	0	0	0.02	0.08	0	0.11
  Maize for grain	0.01	0.01	0.13	0.04	0	0.19
  Maize for biomass	0.06	0.03	0.01	0.01	0	0.12
  Hay on arable land	0.85	0.36	0.46	0.28	0.39	2.37
  Natural hay or pastures	5.61	2.96	0.94	0.68	11.08	22.52

  Source: https://stat.gov.kz, accessed on 12 May 2025; * For all crops exceeding a total area of 100,000 hectares.

  ). Pulse crops (dry peas and lentils) are gaining importance due to their high market prices and export potential.
• East (Pavlodar, Abay, and east Kazakhstan regions). The total agricultural crop area covers nearly 3 million hectares. This region is characterized by higher precipitation, milder winters, and a longer growing season compared to the northern region [2]. Rainfed farming predominates throughout the region. The main crops are spring wheat and barley, sunflower, and forage crops. This region represents the established cultivation zone for sunflower, millet, and buckwheat in Kazakhstan. The Pavlodar region has a relatively large irrigated area of 53,000 hectares compared to only 12,000 hectares in the other two regions combined.
• Southeast (Almaty, Zhambyl, and Zhetisu regions). This area cultivates more than 1.7 million hectares of field crops. Crop production occurs primarily under rainfed conditions along the mountain foothills, where precipitation reaches 450–550 mm annually, as well as under irrigated systems [2]. Winters are mild, and the growing season extends from March to October. The principal crops include winter wheat, spring barley, maize (for both grain and silage), soybean, safflower, potatoes, and vegetables. Fruit orchards, particularly apple, pear, and grape production, constitute important agricultural commodities in this region. The proportion of irrigated land varies significantly, ranging from 13% in Zhambyl region to 46% in Almaty region and 65% in Zhetisu region.
• South (Turkistan and Qyzylorda regions). These regions employ predominantly irrigated agriculture along the Syr-Darya River and rainfed agriculture in the mountain foothills [2]. The climate is characterized by dry and hot conditions. The total agricultural crop area encompasses approximately 1.5 million hectares, which are concentrated primarily in Turkistan region. This region serves as the country’s main production area for rice (80,000 hectares in Qyzylorda) and cotton (120,000 hectares in Turkistan). Vegetable production also represents an important commodity, followed by forage crops, winter wheat, melons, and watermelons. The irrigated area accounts for 38% of total agricultural land, representing the highest proportion among all zones.
• West (Aktobe and West Kazakhstan regions). This area experiences an arid continental climate with a short growing season similar to the northern zone [2]. More than 1.2 million hectares are under cultivation. The main crops include cereals (wheat and barley), safflower, sunflower, and forage grasses. Irrigation is utilized in selected areas for potato and vegetable cultivation.

In 2023, the five most important crops in the country, each exceeding 0.5 million hectares, were spring wheat (12.5 million ha), spring barley (2.42 million ha), sunflower (1.13 million ha), flax (0.73 million ha), and winter wheat (0.59 million ha). All pulse crops (dry peas, lentils, and chickpea) collectively covered more than 0.37 million hectares. Wheat was by far the most important crop, occupying almost 55% of the total arable land in 2023. The dynamics of area and yield for wheat, barley, and sunflower during 2014–2023 are presented in Figure 2, while data for other important crops are shown in Figure S1. Several crops demonstrated clear upward trends in cultivated area: wheat, sunflower, maize, safflower, and dry peas. Area reductions over the past 3–5 years were observed for oats, flax, potatoes, and soybeans. Changes in crop area are primarily driven by market prices and reflect producers’ strategies to maximize profit by combining higher-value, relatively new crops (flax, lentils, sunflower, soybeans) with traditional commodities (wheat, barley, dry peas, safflower, maize) [2].

The yields of major crops remain low. The average cereal yield in 2023 was 1.07 t/ha, oilseed crops yielded 0.88 t/ha, and pulse crops achieved 0.97 t/ha (Figure 2). These yields are 1.5–2.5 times lower compared to similar ecological conditions in North America. There is also a trend of stagnating yields (sunflower, potato, dry peas) and declining yields (wheat, barley, oats, flax, safflower) in recent years. Only maize demonstrated continuous yield gains, though absolute yields remained in the range of 5–6 t/ha. Several factors contribute to low yields and the lack of productivity improvements [2,10], including the concentration of main production in dryland areas, negative effects of climate change, limited input use, resource degradation, and other constraints. The diverse structure of crop producers comprises small family farms, medium-sized cooperatives and enterprises, and large industrialized holdings. These operations have variable production capacity in terms of access to modern equipment and machinery, inputs, credit, and innovations.

The diverse crop production regions in Kazakhstan, coupled with low-input, primarily dryland production systems, offer opportunities for organic agriculture. This approach can utilize the diverse crop and environmental resources to produce competitive products for both domestic markets and export. Currently, organic production in Kazakhstan is in the early stages of development, and this review aims to contribute to its advancement.

3. Current Status of Organic Crop Production

Organic crop production began in Kazakhstan during 2010–2012 when pioneer farmers initiated field experimentation and production. Official statistics on the area under organic production are unavailable; therefore, estimates are based on data from certification agencies and the farming community. A recent review of organic farming in Kazakhstan by Pashkov et al. [5] indicated that the area of organic land in Kazakhstan is extremely unstable and characterized by multidirectional dynamics. In 2019, the organic area reached its highest level, exceeding 300,000 hectares, but it collapsed to 115,000 hectares in 2020. In 2023, the area remained at approximately 200,000 hectares, which was similar to the previous year. A characteristic feature of organic agriculture in Kazakhstan is its concentration almost exclusively in the northern part of the country within the Kostanay and north Kazakhstan administrative regions, accounting for 70% and 30% of organic production, respectively. Organic production in the irrigated lands of southern Kazakhstan faces several challenges. This region has the least fertile soils in the country—brown and gray soils with humus content of 1–2%—which have been used extensively for soil-depleting crops such as cotton. Mineral fertilizer application (71 kg/ha in 2023) is common in the south to maintain productivity.

Nearly all domestic organic products are exported to the EU, totaling 25,718 tons in 2023 with a value of EUR 21.74 million, representing decreases of 29% and 35%, respectively, compared to 2022 [5]. The main export commodities include wheat, flax, soybean and soybean meal, peas, and lentils. The primary export destinations are Germany and Sweden.

The economic efficiency of organic versus conventional crop production in Kazakhstan remains poorly studied and addressed in the literature, particularly at the farm level. Grigoruk et al. [11] indicated that organic flax seed prices ranged around 600 EUR compared to 350 EUR for conventional flax, making organic production more profitable. Nazarova et al. [12] compared the economic efficiency of spring triticale in organic and conventional systems. Yields, regardless of the preceding crop, were consistently higher in conventional farming. From an economic perspective, triticale cultivation was profitable in both conventional and organic farming systems. However, greater economic benefits were obtained under conventional farming with recommended fertilizer applications.

The “Law on Production of Organic Products” was enacted in 2015, establishing the regulatory foundation for the sector. In 2018, three national standards addressing organic products, certification, and production requirements were adopted. However, implementation of the organic products law and standards has proven insufficient for the large-scale development of biologized agriculture as an alternative to current intensive industrial cropping systems [6]. Two main factors explain why organic farming remains in its initial stages: (a) a lack of comprehensive infrastructure to support the production and marketing processes of organic agriculture (including seeds, biological and technological methods for enhancing soil fertility and plant protection, certification, etc.); and (b) limited motivational interest among management structures at all levels involved in the ecological transformation of agricultural production and its organic sector, including producers and consumers.

Kuandykova et al. [8] identified the main benefits of organic farming in Kazakhstan as improved agricultural production efficiency coupled with reduced anthropogenic pressure on the environment and natural resources; increased biodiversity through the use of diverse crops, crop rotations, and intercropping systems; higher market demand; and rural area development. Three primary challenges for organic production were identified: lack of market access, high initial costs, and insufficient technical knowledge. Samenbetova and Patlasov [13] emphasized the need to develop domestic market demand for organic products. Their consumer surveys revealed that 65% of respondents prefer "Made in Kazakhstan" products, 8% prioritize lower prices, and 22% do not distinguish between imported and domestic products. When asked about factors influencing product choice, nearly 64% of respondents indicated that they consider health benefits and safety when selecting food products. Product awareness campaigns and the appropriate labeling of organic products are needed.

The new “Law on production and turnover of organic products” was accepted in June 2024 (https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z2400000089, accessed on 21 April 2025). The law stipulates the following requirements for organic crop production in Kazakhstan: (1) the use of healthy seeds from agricultural plants and raw materials of plant and animal origin; (2) the exclusion of synthetic substances, chemical pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, and food additives; (3) the preservation and enhancement of soil fertility; (4) the protection of agricultural crops through preventive measures, including appropriate crop rotations and cultivation of species and varieties resistant to pests, weeds, and plant diseases; (5) the application of mechanical, biological, and physical methods for crop protection against pests, weeds, and diseases; (6) the conservation of ecological systems and resources; (7) the selection of resistant species and varieties adapted to local conditions; (8) the exclusion of ionizing radiation; (9) the exclusion of genetically modified organisms; (10) the minimization of non-renewable natural resource use; and (11) the exclusion of soilless crop production. More detailed "Rules on Production and Turnover of Organic Products" were adopted shortly after the Law. A list of 87 substances permitted for use in organic crop production was published in August 2024. New regulations providing 50% subsidies for organic product certification expenses became effective on 1 January 2025. These developments suggest that a renewed foundation is in place for accelerated organic production development in the country.

Several publications address institutional, ecological, financial, legal, and market challenges and solutions related to organic farming development in Kazakhstan [5,6,7,14,15]. The German-Kazakh Agricultural Policy Dialogue implemented a project addressing the institutional and legal framework for organic farming [16].

The effects of climate change on crop production in different regions of Kazakhstan have been documented and presented in the Eighth National Communication of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change [17]. Kazakhstan’s territory is warming at a more significant rate than the global average: 0.32 °C per decade compared to 0.18 °C globally over the same period. Average annual precipitation has remained relatively stable, although some months show increases while others show decreases. The agroclimatic zoning of Kazakhstan’s territory for agricultural crops under climate change conditions offers opportunities for cultivating a wide range of crops [18]. Organically managed systems can help mitigate climate change through reduced nitrous oxide emissions from soils and support climate change adaptation by diversifying farms and enriching soils with organic matter [19].

The agronomic and technical aspects of conversion to organic production remain largely unexplored and are presented in this review with a focus on main organic crops and regions. The effects of organic systems on sustainable resource use receive appropriate coverage. When screening references for this review, the main focus was on innovative agronomic practices used in agroclimatic regions and cropping systems similar to northern Kazakhstan (above 45° N), including neighboring Russia, Scandinavia, North America, and northeast China.

4. Crops and Varieties Diversification

Crop diversification forms the foundation of organic farming, as crop rotations can provide enhanced protection against insect pests and diseases while improving nutrition. Substantial diversification has occurred in the cropping system, particularly in the main northern Kazakhstan production zone [2]. Lentil cultivation expanded from only 10,000 ha in 2014 to over 200,000 ha in 2023. The dry pea area increased to 0.14 million ha, representing a 3.5-fold increase compared to 2014. The soybean area remained relatively stable at over 0.1 million ha. This diversification is particularly important because pulse crops provide nitrogen to the soil through symbiotic relationships with microorganisms. Oil crops also experienced substantial area gains: sunflower, flax, and safflower areas nearly doubled to 1.3, 1.3, and 0.5 million ha, respectively. Forage crop areas also increased, including both annual crops and perennial grasses. This crop diversification has important implications for organic farming development, including the availability of cultivars and seeds and accumulated experience in growing diverse crops.

Organic farm diversification is driven by two main factors: (a) crop compatibility considering agroclimatic conditions and the absence of synthetic inputs, and (b) market demand that is primarily export-oriented in the current Kazakhstan context. Organic export crops from northern Kazakhstan include wheat, flax, dry peas, and lentils. The production of all these crops has the potential to increase, and they integrate well into rotations with cereals, pulses, and oil crops. Telford [20] summarized the distribution of organic field crops across Canada (0.55 million ha) and Saskatchewan (0.28 million ha) specifically, which shares similarities with northern Kazakhstan regions. The dominant organic cereals in 2020 were wheat (0.12 million ha), oats (0.06 million ha), and barley (0.02 million ha); among pulses, peas and lentils each occupied 0.02 million ha; flax (0.02 million ha) and mustard (5000 ha) dominated among oil crops. Notably, organic pastures, forages, and green manure crops occupied 0.19 million ha in Saskatchewan out of 0.32 million ha in Canada, including green manure (83,000 ha), livestock fodder (51,000 ha), biodiversity areas (24,000 ha), alfalfa and its mixtures (20,000 ha), and clover (16,000 ha). Pastures, forages, and green manures can be considered important biological resources that are also available in Kazakhstan. Overall, the organic crop diversity in Saskatchewan is considerably greater than in Kazakhstan due to higher market demand and more comprehensive crop rotation options.

Organic field crop rotations have been addressed in several studies conducted in Kazakhstan and western Siberia, Russia—a region with similar agroecological conditions and cropping systems. Chibis [21] studied the following crop rotations in organic systems: black fallow–spring wheat–spring wheat; black fallow–winter rye–soybean–spring wheat; black fallow–winter rye–soybean–spring wheat–barley; and black fallow–spring wheat–spring wheat–soybeans–spring wheat. Short rotations of three and four years were most productive. The study also demonstrated the importance of black fallow in organic production, as it enables moisture and nutrient accumulation, provides weed control, and eliminates the need for pesticides. Similar results were obtained in Kazakhstan by Somova et al. [22], who compared four organic rotations: black fallow–spring wheat (3 seasons); peas–spring wheat–oats–spring wheat; flax with sainfoin–sainfoin–spring wheat; and peas–spring wheat–buckwheat–spring wheat. Black fallow also showed advantages in increasing spring wheat productivity. However, the challenge with black fallow is that it requires multiple tillage passes during the season, contributing to potential soil erosion and long-term land resource degradation.

Different biological resources as cover/green manure crops for replacing black fallow were studied by Seminchenko [23] and included oats, sweet clover, and phacelia. The most suitable crops were sweet clover and oats in the following rotations: cover crop–wheat–chickpea–spring barley–mustard or sainfoin. Dedov and Nesmeyanova [24] suggested using a wider range of cover crop mixtures for forage production: winter wheat and rye, vetch and oats, barley and peas, oats and peas, sunflower and peas, maize or sorghum and soybeans, and buckwheat and millet. Annual and perennial legumes and their mixtures with cereals are essential for organic crop rotations with their share potentially reaching 20–35%. The following crop rotations were proposed: fallow with green manure crop–winter wheat (with straw residue retention)–sugar beet–millet as cover crop for sainfoin–sainfoin–spring wheat–sunflower with sweet clover or sainfoin; and green manure fallow (sweet clover or sainfoin)–winter wheat–maize for grain–spring wheat + sweet clover or sainfoin.

In Canada, Dayananda et al. [25] compared two crop rotation sequences: a 2-year simplified rotation consisting of forage pea grown as green manure followed by spring wheat and a 4-year diversified rotation sequence that included forage pea green manure followed by flax or yellow mustard, field pea or lentil, and spring wheat. The diversified crop rotation increased profitability compared to the traditional simplified crop rotation. Analysis of breakeven prices and breakeven yields for crops indicated the importance of adopting diversified rotations and selecting crops with high organic price premiums to maximize the long-term profitability of organic cropping systems.

Forage crop rotations utilize green manure crops such as rapeseed, barley straw, and the last cut of perennial grasses as well as livestock manure in the following rotations: annual grasses–perennial grasses (3 seasons)–winter triticale–barley–maize [26]. Sabirova et al. [27] proposed a similar rotation with rapeseed planted after winter wheat or triticale in the same season and used as green manure. This crop rotation was tested under three production systems: extensive production without fertilizer, organic systems with green and organic manure, and intensive technology with mineral fertilizers. The average dry matter yield was 5.1 t/ha for extensive practices, increasing by 15% under organic management and by 28% under intensive technology.

Organic crop production systems require specialized wheat cultivars that respond to relevant agronomic protocols (rotation, tillage, fertilization, and crop protection), as reviewed by Rempelos et al. [28]. Evidence suggests that the prohibition of water-soluble mineral N, P, and K fertilizers and synthetic pesticide inputs necessitates revising both breeding and selection methodologies. For organic production systems, cultivars represent an important biological resource. They must possess traits important to organic farmers, including high nutrient use efficiency, weed competitiveness, and resistance to biotic stresses. Nutritional quality parameters preferred by organic consumers are also high priorities. Many production systems require organic farming-focused breeding programs. The performance of modern varieties developed for the conventional sector may be inferior to traditional/older varieties favored by organic farmers and/or new varieties developed through organic breeding programs.

Kazakhstan’s crop breeding is primarily based on a network of public programs. An official state system for cultivar evaluation and registration follows UPOV rules, although Kazakhstan is not yet a member. The register of released cultivars is published annually and serves as guidance for producers when selecting cultivars [29]. The share of locally released and cultivated varieties ranges from over 60–70% for wheat and barley to less than 50% for hybrid crops such as maize and sunflower. While Kazakhstan lacks organic farming-targeted breeding programs for main field crops, the majority of local spring wheat cultivars represent extensive tall types with higher tolerance to abiotic stresses, including nutritional stress and biotic stresses such as weed competition. However, targeted evaluation of wheat, flax, lentil, and soybean cultivars under both organic and conventional systems is well justified.

Some Canadian organic producers and researchers practice participatory plant breeding to develop germplasm specifically bred for target environments [30]. An evaluation of 25 farmer genotypes and 6 commercial cultivars across locations in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, totaling 12 organic environments, showed that the top performers most responsive to higher-yield environments were three farmer genotypes. One farmer genotype (BL23-AS) and one check cultivar (Vesper) demonstrated high yield and greater organic adaptation than the other tested genotypes. Two registered cultivars (AAC Brandon and Jake) exhibited low yield and poor adaptation. Yield was positively and strongly correlated with height, anthesis, mature biomass, and kernel number per unit area. Participatory plant breeding has not been practiced in Kazakhstan for wheat or other crops. Landraces have not been systematically tested for commercial production. However, as organic systems expand and demand for organic-targeted cultivars grows, there is a clear need to establish field trials and research agendas to identify, select, and possibly breed for these systems independently. The screening and utilization of genetic resources for adaptation to organic systems is also well justified.

5. Tillage Systems for Organic Crops

The current trend in Kazakhstan involves reducing and minimizing tillage to prevent land degradation through water and wind erosion [31]. Some producers have converted to no-till systems without mechanical soil disturbance for multiple years. Weed control in minimal and no-till systems is conducted using conventional herbicides. However, these are prohibited in organic production; therefore, weed control becomes challenging when combined with reduced or zero tillage. Very limited published information is available on tillage options for organic production based on studies conducted in Kazakhstan.

Black fallow with several surface cultivations during the season can be replaced by cover crops, as demonstrated by a study in Kostanay region [32]. The effects of a four-field cereal–fallow–grass crop rotation (Sudan grass–wheat–peas + oats–wheat) on the water–physical properties of soil were studied. Sowing Sudan grass and pea–oat mixtures with the chopping and distribution of green mass after the first mowing contributes to better moisture and nutrient accumulation in soil and improved microbiological processes. The best moisture supply was observed in wheat fields following peas/oats. However, tillage was required for spring wheat production: harrowing and shallow cultivation before seeding at the end of May; harrowing again in the second part of June after seedling emergence and tillering; and cultivation to 12–14 cm depth after harvest. Spring wheat crop residues are chopped and spread on the soil surface. In this organic system, shallow soil tillage occurs every second year for spring wheat production. Nazarova et al. [33] demonstrated the high efficiency of black fallow with four shallow summer cultivations to depths of 8–18 cm and subsoiling to depths of 25–27 cm from the end of August to the beginning of September for weed control in spring triticale planted the following season. Disk tillage was used prior to seeding. This tillage effectively controlled weeds such as prostrate amaranth, Tartary buckwheat, white goosefoot, wild proso millet, wild oats, and Canada thistle. However, it was not effective against field bindweed.

A 4-year field study in Canada aimed to determine whether an organic system with diversified crop rotations under reduced tillage would produce high-quality spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain and improve soil fertility [34]. A simplified rotation consisting of a forage pea green manure–spring wheat sequence and a diversified rotation (forage pea green manure–oilseed [mustard or flax]–pulse crop [field pea or lentil]–spring wheat) were compared under high and low tillage intensities. Nutrient concentrations in wheat grain were significantly higher under low tillage than high tillage and in the diversified rotation compared to the simplified rotation. The tillage-rotation system also affected soil zinc, calcium, magnesium, and sodium concentrations. The study concluded that organically managed diversified crop rotations under reduced tillage can produce wheat grains with high nutritional value for humans and livestock but may not increase soil micronutrient concentrations.

A similar study compared the effects of simplified and diversified crop rotations and high and low tillage intensity on organic production economics in the semiarid Canadian prairies [25]. As expected, more diversified crop rotations were more profitable compared to traditional simplified rotations. However, the combination of reduced tillage and diversified crop rotation did not further enhance profitability. The adoption of diversified rotations with crops having high organic price premiums maximized the long-term profitability of organic systems.

Growing demand for organic small grains has increased interest in producing certified organic crops in the semiarid US Pacific Northwest [35]. The region is well suited for small grain production, and there is a strong market for organic food products on the US west coast. However, many growers encounter significant and persistent challenges with weed management. From 2004 to 2024, several short- and intermediate-term studies have been conducted to assess weed control tactics. Precision mechanical and chemical system applications are feasible in small grains when combined with crop rotation. Importantly, the need for organic growers to return to conventional production will be reduced.

Soil microbial communities were compared in 4-year organic tilled and conventional no-till rotations in Canada [36]. The organic systems were tilled to control weeds, and N₂-fixing legumes or compost supplied nutrients. The conventional systems were managed under no-till conditions; herbicides controlled weeds and compost or fertilizers supplied nutrients. The bacterial classes Gemmatimonadetes, C0119 (phylum Chloroflexi), and Thermomicrobia (phylum Chloroflexi) were more abundant in organic than in conventional cropping systems. Acid phosphomonoesterase activity was greater in conventional than in organic cropping systems, which was presumably because soil P from large amounts of compost applied in the organic system suppressed this enzyme. Compost applications had greater effects on soil organic carbon, bacterial diversity, and the relative abundances of the bacterial classes δ-Proteobacteria, γ-Proteobacteria, and Bacilli (phylum Firmicutes) compared to tillage effects.

The cited case studies support the concept that rational soil tillage may be an important component of organic systems. The lack of studies on this subject in Kazakhstan and neighboring ecological regions emphasizes the importance of conducting local, targeted applied and strategic research to identify optimal tillage options.

6. Crop Nutrition

The restriction on mineral fertilizer use in organic systems necessitates alternative nature-based solutions and the extensive utilization of biological resources. Manure is one of the most popular fertilizer types in organic systems [37]. Numerous other biological resource products are also available in the market. Nasiyev et al. [38,39] conducted experiments under dry conditions in western Kazakhstan comparing traditional technology (mineral fertilizers ammonium nitrate NH₄NO₃ and double superphosphate Ca(H₂PO₄)₂ at a dose of N₂₀P₂₀ before sowing) with biologized technology (Biodux growth stimulator, Orgamica S biofungicide, Organit N, and Organit P bio-organic fertilizers). Biodux contains biologically active polyunsaturated fatty acids from the soil fungus Mortierella alpina. Orgamica S biofungicide comprises Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, which suppresses growth or destroys harmful organisms through antibiotic and hydrolytic enzyme action. Organit N biofertilizer contains cells of Azospirillum zeae bacteria for atmospheric nitrogen fixation. Organit P biofertilizer comprises spores of Bacillus megaterium bacteria. These biological substances were used for seed treatment and plant spraying during the tillering stage. The biologized technology positively affected the fodder and energy/protein value of spring barley, increasing fodder unit yield to 0.88 t/ha, representing a 20% increase compared to the control traditional technology. For safflower, yield reached 0.91 t/ha (33% higher than control), while oil content reached 30.7% (4.4% higher). Recommendations for using these biological substances were provided.

The effects of various biofertilizers and biostimulants on grain maize productivity in organic farming were studied in southeastern Kazakhstan [40]. The following biological products with stimulating and fungicidal properties were used: Extrasol, BisolbiSan, Biojuice Energy+, YaraVita BioNUE, and Agroflorin. The application of biological products in maize contributed to yield increases and provided high plant resistance to adverse environmental conditions. Experimental results showed that yield increases compared to the control were significant for all biological products. The most effective biological product with stimulating properties was Extrasol with a grain yield of 7.3 t/ha representing an increase of over 50% compared to the control.

Mazalov et al. [41] conducted experiments in the Orel region, Russia, comparing organic and conventional production technologies for buckwheat, soybean, and wheat. In the organic variant, winter wheat seeds were treated with biological preparations Phytosporin M, Bionex Kemi, Borogum M, and Biopolystim, while soybean seeds were treated with Rizobash, Borogum M, and Biopolistim, and buckwheat seeds were treated with Phytosporin M, Borogum M, and Biopolistim. Yields of buckwheat, soybeans, and winter wheat under conventional technology were higher compared to organic farming. However, the production costs for these crops using pesticides and chemical fertilizers were also significantly higher. When using organic farming technology, higher prices for crop products provided greater profits for buckwheat, soybeans, and winter wheat compared to conventional technology. Nevertheless, the main factor reducing crop yields in the organic system is soil depletion due to unreplenished nutrient removal with harvest. Replacing black fallow with lupin as green manure is important.

Bradyrhizobia inoculation on soybean has gained popularity as an agronomically and environmentally sound soil management strategy. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of Bradyrhizobia inoculation on three soybean varieties [42]. The experimental treatments included native Bradyrhizobia, commercial Bradyrhizobium japonicum, a mixture of native + commercial Bradyrhizobia, and an uninoculated control. Results showed significant improvements in soybean nodule dry weight, shoot dry weight, and seed dry weight in treatments with Bradyrhizobia inoculation. Interestingly, organic farming significantly outperformed conventional systems in terms of Bradyrhizobia effectiveness. Kuyandykova et al. [43] screened 39 local Bradyrhizobia strains on soybean in the southeastern region of Kazakhstan. Half of the strains demonstrated positive effects on productivity-associated traits, proving their efficiency for organic production. Popov et al. [44] showed positive effects of combined phosphorus and Rhizobium (Rizotrofin) application on peas and chickpea, resulting in accelerated maturity and improved yield.

In northern Kazakhstan, Kurishbayev et al. [45] compared the use of dry biomass from perennial grasses as fertilizer in organic systems. Biomass from five local grass species (Melilotus officinalis, sainfoin—Onobrychis arenaria, alfalfa—Medicago varia, Bromus inermis, and Agropyron pectiniforme) was collected from external fields and applied at rates of 4.5–5.0 t/ha of dry biomass and then incorporated into the soil. The corresponding N application varied from 117 kg/ha for Bromus to 144 kg/ha for sainfoin. Spring triticale was planted the following season, and grain yield was evaluated compared to the control (N₃₀P₃₀K₃₀). Overall, the incorporation of grass biomass provided similar yields compared to the control. However, in some years, legume grasses affected triticale yield negatively, while in others, the effect was positive. The study concluded that grass biomass is suitable as fertilizer in organic production.

A study on winter wheat in southern Russia indicated differences in cultivar responses to biological products [46]. The experiment conducted from 2019 to 2023 included five winter wheat cultivars subjected to the application of potassium humate amino acid biostimulant Biostim Cereal. While the average yield increase in all cultivars to biological products was 11.6%, varieties Karolina 5 and Alekseich yielded 6.44 and 6.09 t/ha, respectively, with increases of over 15%.

A recent comprehensive review of biological resources for organic fertilizers [47] (Panday et al. 2024) classified them into six groups: (1) animal-based fertilizers: manure, bone meal, blood meal, fish emulsion, wool pellets, and feather meal; (2) plant-based fertilizers: compost, green manure, cottonseed meal, and seaweed extracts; (3) mineral-based fertilizers: rock phosphate, greensand, and lime; (4) specialty organic fertilizers: bat guano, worm castings (vermicompost), and biochar; (5) microbial inoculants: mycorrhizae and bacterial inoculants; and (6) wastewater-derived organic fertilizers: biosolids. The details of their use are presented and discussed and have high relevance for Kazakhstan organic farming.

Manure from animals in Kazakhstan amounts to 807,387 tons of nitrogen annually [2]. The total seeded area in the country in 2021 was 22.9 million hectares. A simple calculation shows that if all manure were applied to fields, each hectare of planted land would receive 35.2 kg of nitrogen. This would satisfy the nitrogen requirements for most crops. There is great potential for using manure as a biological resource for organic production in Kazakhstan. However, most of the country’s livestock graze on pastures, especially horses, sheep, goats, and camels. Therefore, the amount of manure deposited on pastures ranges from 83% to 95% for these animal groups. Only 35% of the manure is treated, and only 25.1% is applied to soil. The concept of manure management has not been fully embraced in Kazakhstan. Despite its great potential, only a limited amount of manure is processed into useful products, composted, or applied to fields.

Recent trends in the application of biological resources, including biological fertilizers and stimulants based on microorganisms, already benefit producers in Kazakhstan as new domestic and imported products are marketed. This also offers opportunities for organic producers to improve their crop nutrition.

7. Crop Protection

Weed, disease, and insect control in organic systems without synthetic chemicals represents a major challenge for producers. Diverse options are recommended for crop protection depending on the cropping system and ecology. A large-scale field experiment was conducted in Russia comparing weed infestation under several production systems: (1) control—no fertilizers and no pesticides; (2) organo-mineral without pesticides but with mineral fertilizers (N₆₀P₆₀K₉₀) and manure; (3) organo-mineral with pesticides; (4) biologized—based on biological crop protection with limited use of mineral fertilizers; and (5) organic—without mineral fertilizers and pesticides, using green manure as organic fertilizer [48]. The highest number of weeds was observed in maize crops (100.7 per m²), while the lowest was in annual grasses (49.1 per m²). The organo-mineral fertilizer system with pesticides led to a decrease in perennial weed species compared to the control. The application of organo-mineral fertilizers alone and with pesticides increased weed biomass accumulation. The application of mineral fertilizers nearly doubled the yield of forage crops.

A similar large-scale field experiment evaluated the effects of different production systems on forage crop rotations: annual crop mixture as cover crop for perennial grasses–perennial grasses for three years–winter triticale–barley–maize for silage [49]. The following systems were used: (1) extensive: no fertilizers, pesticides, or lime; (2) intensive: annual grasses (N₆₀P₆₀K₉₀); perennial grasses (P₆₀K₉₀) (if legume grass content below 30%, nitrogen applied at N_60–90); winter triticale (N₆₀P₆₀K₉₀) + rapeseed (N₆₀P₆₀K₉₀); barley (N₆₀P₆₀K₉₀); maize–barley straw + 60 t/ha manure + N₁₀₀P₁₀₀K₁₂₀ + lime + seed inoculation; (3) high intensity: respective fertilizers increased to N₉₀P₉₀K₁₃₅ and herbicide (Dialene super 1.0–1.5 l/ha) application in maize; (4) organic: without mineral fertilizers and pesticides–perennial grasses from two harvests used for green manure; rapeseed biomass after winter triticale used for green manure; maize–barley straw and 60 t/ha manure + lime + seed inoculation; and (5) biological: limited use of mineral inputs at N₃₀P₃₀K₄₅. Herbicide use in high-intensity technology provided only a tendency to reduce weed numbers. However, despite the absence of pesticides and mineral fertilizers in organic technology, the number and weight of weeds were at levels similar to intensive technologies, indicating the possibility of effective weed control with this management method.

Crop rotation (Sudan grass–wheat–peas + oats–wheat) as an effective instrument for crop protection was studied in Kazakhstan by Tulkubayeva et al. [50]. The distribution and severity of root rot in wheat after the pea–oats mixture were 50% and 30%, respectively, while wheat after Sudan grass showed 60% and 40%. The highest number of insect pests was observed on wheat following Sudan grass. The positive role of organic farming techniques in suppressing annual and perennial weeds was also observed.

The impact of different cultivation technologies (extensive, organic, high intensity) on fodder crops (annual and perennial grasses, barley, spring triticale, and maize) and the dynamics of ground beetle populations was studied in the Non-Chernozem zone of Russia [51]. The cultivation of annual and perennial grasses in the first year of use in crop rotation contributed to an increase in predatory ground beetle numbers by an average of 32.7% compared to other crops. Among the cultivation technologies, the organic system showed advantages in increasing predatory ground beetle populations.

The high efficiency of biological resources, specifically microbiological fungicides, was demonstrated by Urban et al. [52]. In the Rostov region of Russia, a field demonstration of a plant protection system was conducted using the fungicide BisolbiSan, which contains a live culture of rhizosphere bacteria Bacillus subtilis. This bacterium exhibits antagonistic and phytostimulating activity, has the ability to enzymatically destroy cells of other bacteria and fungi, and improves resistance to diseases and pests by stimulating systemic protective reactions in plants. The application showed high biological efficiency in protecting winter wheat against common diseases while improving grain quality and the phytosanitary condition of the crop.

Trichoderma represents a globally distributed genus of opportunistic ascomycete fungi containing species valuable to organic agriculture for their direct biocontrol properties against plant pathogens. Its use in crop production has been recently reviewed by Woo et al. [53]. These fungi employ antagonistic mechanisms within the rhizosphere and influence microbial community structure and inter-organismal relationships. Through root colonization or endophytic establishment, Trichoderma can be used as a direct and indirect biocontrol agent, biostimulant, and biofertilizer. A positive example of Trichoderma use on spring barley in northern Kazakhstan was demonstrated by Makenova et al. [54]. The seed application of Trichedermin-KZ (a mixture of Tr. lignorum and Tr. album strains) doubled grain yield from 0.77 t/ha to 1.54 t/ha due to higher numbers of ammonifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Weed control in organic production in the semiarid US Pacific Northwest is highly relevant for Kazakhstan conditions. Many producers in the region encounter substantial challenges with perennial weed control, including Canada thistle [Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.] and field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.), as well as annual grass weeds such as cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) and wild oat (Avena fatua L.) [35]. The requirement to reduce soil disturbance makes weed control difficult, limiting production. Several studies conducted over 20 years (2004–2024) focused on weed control practices. Incorporating alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) into rotations suppressed bindweed. Alfalfa and winter triticale (× Triticosecale Wittmack) suppressed Canada thistle. Input optimization, especially seeding rates, was critical for all crops in rotation.

The current trend in crop protection for organic farming relevant to Kazakhstan involves utilizing agronomic practices, primarily crop rotation and tillage options, as well as emerging biological resources. The complete range of biopesticides is gradually becoming available [55] and will contribute to the sustainability of organic production. Some biological products are already on the market and have been successfully tested in Kazakhstan fields.

8. Summary

Kazakhstan’s diversity of agroecological zones and generally low-input rainfed cropping systems are highly suitable for organic farming. Demand for Kazakh organic products exists in Europe, and the market has good potential for growth. New laws and regulations governing organic production, including producer support, were adopted in 2024, providing the necessary framework. Technical aspects of organic farming remain a challenge for producers. This review demonstrated that crop diversification remains the fundamental basis of organic systems and is developing in the northern region of Kazakhstan due to market demand for pulses and oil crops. However, the share of cover crops, green manure crops, forages, and grasses has considerable potential for increase under organic crop rotations. Tillage remains an important component of organic systems, particularly for controlling weeds, diseases, and pests. However, a proper balance is needed to avoid excessive soil disturbance and prevent land degradation. Several biological resource products are available on the market to improve crop nutrition and protection. These are available and have been tested in Kazakhstan. Local manure processing represents great potential for organic systems across all regions, considering the livestock numbers. Crop diversity and rotations contribute significantly to balanced nutrition and protection against weeds, diseases, and pests. Experience and technology developed for organic farming in similar ecological conditions, including neighboring regions of Russia and North America, are highly relevant for Kazakhstan and need to be tested and adopted by producers. The lack of targeted cultivars, technology, and biological resource development for organic production in Kazakhstan impedes its progress and requires a longer-term, producer-focused framework for research and extension.