Real-Time Scheduling of Pumps in Water Distribution Systems Based on Exploration-Enhanced Deep Reinforcement Learning
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Reinforcement Learning (RL)
- S is the state space, which is a set of states;
- A is the action space, which is a set of executable actions for the agent;
- P is the transition distribution, which describes the probability distribution of the next time step state under different and ;
- R is the reward function, is the step reward after the agent takes an under state ; and
- is the discount factor used to calculate the cumulative reward (), which is defined as:
2.2. Design of Significant Factors for RL Application to Pump Scheduling
2.2.1. State Space
2.2.2. Action Space
2.2.3. Reward Function
- (1)
- Energy cost of pumps
- (2)
- Hydraulic constraint
- (3)
- Tank-level variation
Algorithm 1 Reward function | |
1: | for do |
2: | Take action for state , collecting ,. |
3: | if hydraulic punishment = False then |
4: | if then |
5: | |
6: | else |
7: | if then |
8: | |
9: | else |
10: | |
11: | end if |
12: | end if |
13: | else |
14: | |
15: | break |
16: | end if |
17: | end for |
2.3. Reinforcement Learning Model
2.3.1. Proximal Policy Optimisation (PPO)
Algorithm 2 PPO | |
1: | , |
2: | for k = 0, 1, 2, …, do |
3: | Collect set of trajectories by running policy in the environment. |
4: | Compute reward-to-go based on the collected trajectories. |
5: | . |
6: | Update the policy by maximising the PPO objective: |
7: | by regression on mean-squared error: |
8: | end for |
2.3.2. Exploration Enhancement
3. Case Study: EPANet Net3
- (1)
- All the control rules for the lake source, pipe 330 and pump 335, were removed. In addition, pipe 330 was kept closed. This means that these two raw sources only supply water through pumps 10 and 335, which are controlled by the agent, rather than supply water under specific control rules;
- (2)
- To simulate the stochastic water demand in a real-world WDS, the randomisation method described above was used.
3.1. Effects of the Penalty Form of Tank-Level Variation
3.2. Effects of Cross Entropy
3.3. Comparison of Models
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Symbol | Hyperparameter | Value |
---|---|---|
Structure and number of neurons in layers of the actor network | [256, 128, 64] | |
Structure and number of neurons in layers of the critic network | [256, 128, 1] | |
Learning rate of the actor network | ||
Learning rate of the critic network | ||
Maximum episode length | 24 | |
Discounter factor | 0.9 | |
Clip range | 0.2 | |
Epochs | 10 | |
Benchmark reward of energy cost | 406.54 | |
Negative reward for the hydraulic constraint | −200 |
Uncertainty Parameter of Demand | Test Case | Energy Cost (USD/Day) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GA | PSO | DE | PPO | E-PPO | ||
0.30 | Case 1 | 190.251 | 231.889 | 205.586 | 213.210 | 207.941 |
Case 2 | 193.700 | 256.125 | 231.793 | 215.387 | 209.001 | |
Case 3 | 206.623 | 283.127 | 239.610 | 218.477 | 215.993 | |
Case 4 | 198.713 | 242.322 | 229.684 | 218.099 | 211.868 | |
Case 5 | 190.328 | 223.991 | 212.200 | 237.575 | 215.848 | |
0.60 | Case 1 | 194.435 | 279.038 | 223.849 | 214.965 | 206.268 |
Case 2 | 204.636 | 279.256 | 229.777 | 214.099 | 208.265 | |
Case 3 | 194.163 | 255.669 | 226.321 | 229.907 | 204.839 | |
Case 4 | 190.837 | 245.699 | 221.987 | 232.683 | 203.932 | |
Case 5 | 200.929 | 268.320 | 224.463 | 216.151 | 209.488 | |
0.90 | Case 1 | 187.169 | 238.844 | 214.211 | 230.172 | 208.123 |
Case 2 | 185.796 | 232.904 | 219.973 | 211.734 | 196.397 | |
Case 3 | 201.102 | 259.644 | 216.285 | 209.971 | 186.099 | |
Case 4 | 201.855 | 257.274 | 219.415 | 218.811 | 202.868 | |
Case 5 | 217.869 | 253.887 | 238.714 | 227.810 | 220.299 |
Uncertainty Parameter of Demand | Time (s) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GA | PSO | DE | PPO Training | E-PPO Training | PPO Application | E-PPO Application | |
0.3 | 1699.32 | 1291.18 | 1448.63 | 5479.30 | 5573.58 | 0.42 | 0.41 |
0.6 | 1640.72 | 1214.62 | 1475.45 | 5333.92 | 5407.01 | 0.44 | 0.42 |
0.9 | 1586.19 | 1181.03 | 1408.05 | 5833.19 | 5506.07 | 0.42 | 0.42 |
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Hu, S.; Gao, J.; Zhong, D.; Wu, R.; Liu, L. Real-Time Scheduling of Pumps in Water Distribution Systems Based on Exploration-Enhanced Deep Reinforcement Learning. Systems 2023, 11, 56. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11020056
Hu S, Gao J, Zhong D, Wu R, Liu L. Real-Time Scheduling of Pumps in Water Distribution Systems Based on Exploration-Enhanced Deep Reinforcement Learning. Systems. 2023; 11(2):56. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11020056
Chicago/Turabian StyleHu, Shiyuan, Jinliang Gao, Dan Zhong, Rui Wu, and Luming Liu. 2023. "Real-Time Scheduling of Pumps in Water Distribution Systems Based on Exploration-Enhanced Deep Reinforcement Learning" Systems 11, no. 2: 56. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11020056