Effectiveness of Virtual Reality on Attention Training for Elementary School Students
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Focused attention: The ability of an individual to focus on a task and respond directly to specific visual or auditory stimuli. This is the most basic type of attention.
- Sustained attention: The ability of an individual to maintain consistent responses and behaviors over time while performing a task.
- Selective attention: The ability of an individual to select a particular object when faced with a stimulus or interfering objects and to continue completing the task without being affected by the interfering objects.
- Alternating attention: The ability of an individual to change the target of attention and alternate attention between tasks. For example, students need to switch their attention between listening to lectures and taking notes during class.
- Divided attention: The ability of an individual to use appropriate attention for multiple tasks simultaneously. Divided attention is used when performing multiple tasks are required at the same time.
1.1. Attention Training
1.2. Virtual Reality
- Desktop VR: Also known as non-immersive virtual reality, it is the cheapest and easiest way of VR, which requires only a regular computer, the VR software, a mouse, and a keyboard to interact with the computer. Although a joystick can enhance interactivity, it is less immersive than a data glove [23].
- Simulator VR: Also known as vehicle-based VR, it is the first VR system developed for the purpose of simulation. Simulator VR allows the user to operate in a specific hardware environment to perform flying or driving training. Simulator VR is designed with an operating interface and scenery equipment to simulate a real-life situation, e.g., a pilot training system [24].
- Immersive VR: With specific input and output devices, such as stereo sound devices, HMDs, and handsets, the user can receive feedback stimuli in real-time. The sensation and interaction allow full immersion and isolation from the outside world [25].
- Projection VR: Using a projector with stereo sound effects, images are projected onto the screen to create a three-dimensional scene. Users can experience virtual reality with 3D glasses, just like watching a 3D movie in a theater [26].Depending on how the models of objects and virtual scenes are developed, VR can also be divided into the following three types:
- Geometry-based VR: Also known as geometric virtual reality. The objects in the virtual scene can be created by 3D modeling software, e.g., 3D Studio Max, Cinema 4D, AutoCAD, and Maya. Designers can control the orientation of 3D objects with different viewing angles, and they can also add programs to these objects for setting different characteristics [27,28].
- Image-based VR: It is designed using photo synthesis technology by the following two methods: The first is to use a camera as the axis and rotate it at a fixed angle to take images from the surrounding environment. Then, the image processing software is used to combine the images for creating the virtual scene without spending a lot of time. This method is often used in developing virtual museums or art galleries. The second method is to surround the object with one or several cameras and shoot the object at a fixed distance around the circle. This method is suitable for displaying an object, and the audience can observe it from different angles [29].
- Hybrid VR: Combining object-based VR and image-based VR, the first step is to take multiple images of a real scene, and then create a panoramic environment as the virtual background. The 3D virtual objects can be added to the scene and their characteristics are controlled by the program to achieve desired interaction [30].
- Immersive training: Because VR can provide 3D visualization to enhance immersion and isolate external distractions, users can focus on attention training more easily.
- Bringing fun to learning: Integrating VR into teaching can reduce the rejection of learning contents and enhance concentration. VR creates a virtual learning environment for students to interact with and learn from. This new approach can also bring fun to learning and reduce the problem of inattention caused by boring courses.
- Combining multimedia: VR systems combine 3D models, stereo sounds, and animation with learning content to present more diverse stimulus effects.
- Direct interaction: VR systems provide the most direct interaction for users, without complicated training instructions and explanations, so elementary school students can operate it easily and concentrate on attention training.
- Integration of physical application: Since children with attention deficits are liable to distraction, training should not be done by oral instruction only. The VR system provides an immersive experience and multiple types of sensory stimulation, so it is considered a suitable tool for attention training.
- Automatic recording of the learning process: The VR system can record the user’s training process, which not only facilitates the subsequent analysis but also allows the adjustment of training difficulty according to different users and their ages.
1.3. Cognitive Load and Learning Anxiety
- Intrinsic cognitive load: The intrinsic cognitive load relates to the difficulty of learning content and the prior knowledge of learners rather than the teaching method or how the material is presented. Usually, the same content will produce a lower intrinsic cognitive load for learners with more prior knowledge, and a higher intrinsic cognitive load for learners with less prior knowledge.
- Extraneous cognitive load: Extraneous cognitive load is related to external elements such as instructional design, presentation of materials, and teaching activities. Therefore, the extraneous cognitive load of a learner can be reduced through appropriate instructional design and teaching processes.
- Germane cognitive load: Germane cognitive load is related to the extraneous cognitive load. Through the design of appropriate teaching materials and teaching activities, the extraneous cognitive load can be reduced and motivation and concentration can be increased, which can help construct an effective learning model to achieve learning goals more easily.
- (1)
- Does the VR training system improve the attention of elementary school students?
- (2)
- What is the effectiveness of the VR training system on different types of attention for elementary school students?
- (3)
- Is the VR training system more effective than the computerized APT?
- (4)
- Are there improvements in cognitive load and learning anxiety by the VR training system as compared to the computerized APT?
2. VR Training System Design
2.1. Electrical Maze
- Improving divided attention: To improve the ability of divided attention, this stage requires the player to perform two different tasks at the same time by appropriately distributing their attention. The player must use the right hand to hold the orange stick and move along the path, where numbers will appear randomly in the distance. The player must use the yellow stick in the left hand to click on the numbers as they appear and pay attention not to touch the border. In this way, the player is trained to allocate attention to different tasks separately, which cannot be completed without paying attention. If the player touches the border too many times or fails to click on the correct number, it means allocative attention is insufficient and therefore needs to be improved.
- Improving selective attention: To improve selective attention, distractors are added in this stage to lead the player away from choosing the correct objects. Squares with different colors will appear on the way forward to influence judgment. Green squares are the target objects and they can add points whereas red squares are distractors to deduct points, so the player should avoid choosing red squares. In this stage, the player must choose the correct objects (green squares) and avoid touching distracting objects (red squares). If the player touches the border or distractors too many times, it means the selective attention is insufficient and needs to be enhanced.
- Improving sustained attention: To improve sustained attention, the overall training process lasts about six minutes. This stage requires the player to be careful and not to touch the border. After the first two stages, it is not easy for the player to maintain attention during the third stage for a long period of time. To complete the six-minute training, the player must be fully concentrated but may still touch the border accidentally. Touching the border too many times in this stage means that attention cannot be maintained until the end and thus sustained attention needs to be strengthened.
2.2. Matching Shape or Color
- Improving focused attention: In order to improve the ability of focused attention, the player must respond directly to what he or she sees immediately and make the right decision. “Response time” is a very important factor, so the player’s response time and correctness of selection are recorded during the training process. Under the pressure of 30 s per stage, the player has to judge the color and shape of an object in a very short time. If the number of objects correctly chosen within the time is too small, it means the focused attention is insufficient and therefore needs to be improved.
- Improving selective attention: In order to improve selective attention, the player must ignore the interference of distracting objects and select the correct object to gain points. In the process of matching the color or shape of an object, there are objects with different colors or similar shapes to interfere with the player’s judgment. If there are too many errors within this stage, it means the player is easily disturbed and therefore selective attention needs to be enhanced.
- Improving alternating attention: In order to improve alternating attention, the player must switch between selecting the color and the shape of an object. The first and third stages are designed for judging the shape of an object, whereas the second and fourth stages are designed for judging the color of an object. If incorrect selections are made due to wrong judgment, the player is unable to switch attention properly and therefore alternating attention needs to be improved.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Experimental Design
- O1, O2: The pre-test before receiving attention training. The test instrument is the “Attention scale for elementary school children”.
- O3, O4: The post-test after receiving attention training. The test instrument is the “Attention scale for elementary school children”.
- X1: The experimental group performed VR attention training.
- X2: The control group performed computerized APT.
3.2. Research Tools
3.2.1. APT Tool
3.2.2. VR Training Games
3.2.3. Attention Scale for Elementary School Children
3.2.4. Questionnaire Survey
- Cognitive load scale: In this study, the cognitive load in attention training was measured by self-assessment using the scale of cognitive load inventory proposed by Sweller [42]. It is composed of two components: mental effort and mental load. This scale consists of four questions to measure the cognitive load on training content. The first question is the degree of difficulty in performing the training; the second question is the degree of effort in understanding the training material; the third question is the degree of concentration; the fourth question is the degree of stress.
- Learning anxiety scale: In order to understand the learning anxiety during the training process, a learning anxiety scale was designed to measure the anxiety level in attention training using the five-point Likert scale, with a higher score indicating more learning anxiety.
4. Experimental Results and Discussion
4.1. Effectiveness on Attention Training
4.2. Dimensional Effectiveness
4.2.1. Focused Attention
4.2.2. Sustained Attention
4.2.3. Selective Attention
4.2.4. Alternating Attention
4.2.5. Divided Attention
4.3. Cognitive Load Analysis
4.4. Learning Anxiety Analysis
- “I often feel nervous during attention training” (p = 0.018 < 0.05 *)
- “I want to do attention training every day” (p < 0.001 ***)
- “I like to do attention training” (p < 0.001 ***)
- “I think the content of attention training is interesting” (p = 0.005 < 0.01 **)
4.5. Discussion
- (1)
- Does the VR training system improve the attention of elementary school students?
- (2)
- What is the effectiveness of the VR training system on different types of attention for elementary school students?
- (3)
- Is the VR training system more effective than the computerized APT?
- (4)
- Are there better improvements in cognitive load and learning anxiety by the VR training system as compared to the computerized APT?
5. Conclusions
5.1. Research Findings
5.2. Limitations and Future Works
- Research subjects: This study was conducted only with third- and fourth-grade students in an elementary school in Hsinchu, Taiwan as the research subjects. Therefore, the findings cannot be extrapolated to other graders or areas in the country. If researchers need more representative results, they may need to select a wider area or different grades as the target population when performing the training experiment.
- Experimental equipment: This study required the use of HTC VIVE and controllers as the research equipment. Due to the number of VR devices available, it was not possible for all participants to perform training at the same time. With the limited time for conducting the training experiment, only a short-term training effect was observed, and it could not be interpreted as long-term training effect.
- Research variables: Because the family background, learning environment, and personal characteristics may affect the training effectiveness of individual students, it is suggested to add more variables to this study in the future, such as urban/rural disparity, familiarity with information technology, and physiological factors such that more in-depth investigation and findings can be obtained. In addition, VR training may not be suitable for those students suffering from physical discomfort due to the symptoms of dizziness and nausea when wearing the HMD, so it is required to reduce the training time, especially for young children, to avoid motion sickness.
- This study used quantitative data as the analysis tool. It is suggested that future studies may include qualitative data, and interviews could be used to understand more about the reasons behind the results of quantitative analysis or to understand the students’ feelings and emotions during the training process.
- This study was focused on the results after training because the retention effect and follow-up test were not included due to the available experimental time. Future studies can perform a long-term observation to explore the follow-up effect.
- The test in this study was a paper-and-pencil test, which required much labor to record test data and calculate the scores for analysis. Future studies can adopt computerized tests to reduce the effort and time of collecting data and calculating the scores. An online questionnaire survey can also be implemented to provide immediate response and more direct feedback.
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group | Pre-Test | Training | Post-Test |
---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | O1 | X1 | O3 |
Control group | O2 | X2 | O4 |
Attention | Training | Description |
---|---|---|
Focused attention | Above | Click the left mouse button if the meaning of the word matches the position (e.g., “Above” is above the line). Click the right mouse button if the meaning of the word does not match the position (e.g., “Above” is below the line). |
Sustained attention | 9 | Click the left mouse button if the number on the screen is a multiple of 3, but do not respond if it is not a multiple of 3. |
Selective attention | If the black inequality in the middle is correct, click the left mouse button. If the inequality is incorrect, no response is needed. Please ignore the numbers in other colors and blocks. | |
Alternating attention | Click the left mouse button if the meaning of the word matches the outline font (e.g., “Hollow” for hollow fonts). Do not respond if the meaning of the word does not match the outline font (e.g., “Solid” for hollow fonts). Click the left mouse button if you see the wrong outline font, and do not respond when it is correct. | |
Divided attention | 5 17 14 | At the beginning, you will hear and see a series of numbers. When the numbers disappear, read the series of numbers backwards and click the left mouse button when you are done. |
VR Games | Attention | Description |
---|---|---|
Electrical Maze | Sustained attention | Trainees were required to maintain their attention to avoid touching the border within a period of time. |
Selective attention | When encountering distractors, trainees need to stay undisturbed and choose the correct objects. | |
Divided attention | Trainees need to move forward without touching the border and click on the numbers they see. | |
Matching Shape or Color | Focused attention | Under time pressure, the trainee has to determine the color or shape of the object immediately. |
Selective attention | Trainees should choose the target object without being disturbed by the color or shape of other objects. | |
Alternating attention | Trainees are required to alternate between matching color or shape when selecting the target object. |
Attention | Test Item | Description |
---|---|---|
Focused attention | Number guided test | The numbers from one to nine are arranged randomly and the subject must circle as many target numbers as possible within one minute. |
Text-oriented test | The text is randomly arranged and the subject has to delete as much of the target text as possible within one minute. | |
Sustained attention | Petal contrast test | A flower with two layers of petals is placed on the screen. The subject must remove as many flowers with different petals as possible within five minutes. |
Digital circle test | The numbers from one to nine are arranged randomly and the subject must circle the numbers smaller than the previous number within five minutes. | |
Selective attention | Map search test | The background is a subway map, and the paths and stations on the map are used as distractors. The subject has to circle as many target objects as possible within one minute without being disturbed by the distractors. |
Symbol detection test | Overlaying different shades of note symbols as distractors, the subject must circle as many target symbols as possible within one minute without being distracted by the shallower note symbols. | |
Alternating attention | Alternating symbols test | Two simple shapes are randomly arranged, and the subject must alternate circling the specific shape as many times as possible within one minute. |
Alternate number test | Given two single-digit numbers randomly arranged, the subject must alternate circling as many specific numbers as possible within one minute. | |
Divided attention | Circle combined with monophonic test | The test is combined with auditory stimulation. In addition to the digital circle test, the subject must listen for the presence of a specific single tone and check the box on the test sheet immediately when a single tone is heard. The score of the digital circle test will be deducted from the score of the single-tone error. |
Contrast combined with monophonic test | The subject must listen for the presence of a specific single tone and check the box on the test sheet immediately when a single tone is heard. The petal contrast test score will be deducted from the single-tone check mark score. |
Group | Test | Samples | Mean | S.D. | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | Pre-test | 34 | 100.088 | 3.408 | 19.877 |
Post-test | 34 | 125.323 | 3.970 | 23.151 | |
Control group | Pre-test | 32 | 107.656 | 3.238 | 18.320 |
Post-test | 32 | 117.562 | 3.409 | 19.288 |
Group | Mean | S.D. | T | D.F. | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | −25.235 | 12.002 | −12.259 | 33 | 0.000 *** |
Control group | −9.906 | 9.198 | −6.092 | 31 | 0.000 *** |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group*pre | 26.564 | 1 | 26.564 | 0.225 | 0.637 |
error | 7322.991 | 62 | 118.113 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group | 3599.272 | 1 | 3599.272 | 30.853 | 0.000 *** |
error | 7349.555 | 63 | 116.660 |
Group | Test | Samples | Mean | S.D. | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | Pre-test | 34 | 19.029 | 5.578 | 0.956 |
Post-test | 34 | 24.470 | 5.287 | 0.906 | |
Control group | Pre-test | 32 | 19.625 | 4.477 | 0.791 |
Post-test | 32 | 20.281 | 4.913 | 0.868 |
Group | T | D.F. | p |
---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | −5.975 | 33 | 0.000 *** |
Control group | −0.948 | 31 | 0.350 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group*pre | 19.372 | 1 | 19.372 | 1.096 | 0.299 |
error | 1096.103 | 62 | 17.679 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group | 337.842 | 1 | 337.842 | 19.081 | 0.000 *** |
error | 1115.475 | 63 | 17.706 |
Group | Test | Samples | Mean | S.D. | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | Pre-test | 34 | 18.588 | 5.240 | 0.898 |
Post-test | 34 | 25.088 | 6.675 | 1.144 | |
Control group | Pre-test | 32 | 20.531 | 4.593 | 0.811 |
Post-test | 32 | 24.281 | 5.714 | 1.010 |
Group | T | D.F. | p |
---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | −8.157 | 33 | 0.000 *** |
Control group | −5.847 | 31 | 0.000 *** |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group*pre | 0.729 | 1 | 0.729 | 0.041 | 0.841 |
error | 1113.521 | 62 | 17.960 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group | 109.402 | 1 | 109.402 | 6.186 | 0.016 * |
error | 1114.250 | 63 | 17.687 |
Group | Test | Samples | Mean | S.D. | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | Pre-test | 34 | 24.970 | 5.396 | 0.925 |
Post-test | 34 | 30.176 | 5.474 | 0.938 | |
Control group | Pre-test | 32 | 27.187 | 4.268 | 0.754 |
Post-test | 32 | 28.500 | 4.690 | 0.829 |
Group | T | D.F. | p |
---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | −8.170 | 33 | 0.000 *** |
Control group | −2.075 | 31 | 0.046 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group*pre | 0.225 | 1 | 0.225 | 0.018 | 0.893 |
error | 770.233 | 62 | 12.423 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group | 178.785 | 1 | 178.785 | 14.619 | 0.000 *** |
error | 770.458 | 63 | 12.229 |
Group | Test | Samples | Mean | S.D. | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | Pre-test | 34 | 18.441 | 5.950 | 1.020 |
Post-test | 34 | 23.117 | 5.628 | 0.965 | |
Control group | Pre-test | 32 | 18.937 | 5.041 | 0.891 |
Post-test | 32 | 21.062 | 4.449 | 0.786 |
Group | T | D.F. | p |
---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | −6.036 | 33 | 0.000 *** |
Control group | −2.835 | 31 | 0.008 ** |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group*pre | 7.172 | 1 | 7.172 | 0.480 | 0.491 |
error | 925.476 | 62 | 14.927 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group | 91.442 | 1 | 91.442 | 6.177 | 0.016 * |
error | 932.648 | 63 | 14.804 |
Group | Test | Samples | Mean | S.D. | S.E. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | Pre-test | 34 | 19.058 | 4.728 | 0.810 |
Post-test | 34 | 22.764 | 6.174 | 1.058 | |
Control group | Pre-test | 32 | 21.062 | 5.713 | 1.009 |
Post-test | 32 | 23.156 | 5.524 | 0.976 |
Group | T | D.F. | p |
---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | −6.183 | 33 | 0.000 *** |
Control group | −3.895 | 31 | 0.001 ** |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group*pre | 27.426 | 1 | 27.426 | 2.598 | 0.112 |
error | 654.488 | 62 | 10.556 |
Resource | S.S. | D.F. | M.S. | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
group | 34.673 | 1 | 34.673 | 3.204 | 0.078 |
error | 681.874 | 63 | 10.823 |
Group | Samples | Mean | S.D. | T | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental group | 33 | 12.393 | 7.097 | −2.079 | 0.042 * |
Control group | 32 | 16.000 | 6.876 |
Questions | Experimental Group | Control Group | T | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | |||
| 4.000 | 2.750 | 4.343 | 2.088 | −0.566 | 0.573 |
| 3.181 | 2.455 | 4.156 | 2.424 | −1.610 | 0.112 |
| 2.424 | 1.677 | 2.906 | 2.100 | −1.042 | 0.310 |
| 3.060 | 2.448 | 4.593 | 3.014 | −2.254 | 0.028 * |
Group | Samples | Mean | S.D. | T | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental Group | 33 | 20.3333 | 6.03462 | −3.329 | 0.001 ** |
Control Group | 32 | 25.75 | 7.05737 |
Questions | Experimental Group | Control Group | T | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | |||
| 2.000 | 1.030 | 1.843 | 1.194 | 0.565 | 0.574 |
| 2.606 | 1.560 | 3.468 | 1.294 | −2.422 | 0.018 * |
| 2.151 | 1.277 | 2.281 | 1.142 | −0.431 | 0.668 |
| 1.787 | 1.192 | 2.000 | 1.244 | −0.702 | 0.485 |
| 2.121 | 1.317 | 3.343 | 1.515 | −3.474 | 0.000 *** |
| 2.484 | 1.481 | 2.968 | 1.121 | −1.481 | 0.143 |
| 2.787 | 1.408 | 2.937 | 1.412 | −0.427 | 0.670 |
| 1.636 | 0.895 | 2.625 | 1.338 | −3.511 | 0.000 *** |
| 1.666 | 0.957 | 1.906 | 1.117 | −0.929 | 0.356 |
| 1.545 | 0.869 | 2.437 | 1.543 | −2.882 | 0.005 ** |
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Tarng, W.; Pan, I.-C.; Ou, K.-L. Effectiveness of Virtual Reality on Attention Training for Elementary School Students. Systems 2022, 10, 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems10040104
Tarng W, Pan I-C, Ou K-L. Effectiveness of Virtual Reality on Attention Training for Elementary School Students. Systems. 2022; 10(4):104. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems10040104
Chicago/Turabian StyleTarng, Wernhuar, I-Chun Pan, and Kuo-Liang Ou. 2022. "Effectiveness of Virtual Reality on Attention Training for Elementary School Students" Systems 10, no. 4: 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems10040104
APA StyleTarng, W., Pan, I. -C., & Ou, K. -L. (2022). Effectiveness of Virtual Reality on Attention Training for Elementary School Students. Systems, 10(4), 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems10040104