Differences in the Diets of Female and Male Red Deer: The Meaning for Sexual Segregation
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Study Species
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Diet Composition Analysis
2.4. Diet Quality
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Diet Composition
3.2. Diet Quality
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Dumont, B.; Renaud, P.C.; Morellet, N.; Mallet, C.; Anglard, F.; Verheyden-Tixier, H. Seasonal variations of red deer selectivity on a mixed forest edge. Anim. Res. 2005, 54, 369–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Miranda, M.; Sicilia, M.; Bartolomé, J.; Molina-Alcaide, E.; Gálvez-Bravo, L.; Cassinello, J. Foraging sexual segregation in a Mediterranean environment: Summer drought modulates sex-specific resource selection. J. Arid. Environ. 2012, 85, 97–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Han, L.; Blank, D.; Wang, M.; da Silva, A.; Yang, W.; Ruckstuhl, K.; Alves, J. Diet differences between males and females in sexually dimorphic ungulates: A case study on siberian ibex. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 2020, 66, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barboza, P.S.; Bowyer, R.T. Sexual segregation in dimorphic deer: A new gastrocentric hypothesis. J. Mammal. 2000, 81, 473–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bowyer, R.T. Sexual segregation in southern mule deer. J. Mammal. 1984, 65, 410–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conradt, L. Could asynchrony in activity between the sexes cause intersexual social segregation in ruminants? Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 1998, 265, 1359–1363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kie, J.G.; Bowyer, R.T. Sexual segregation in white-tailed deer: Density-dependent changes in use of space, habitat selection, and dietary niche. J. Mammal. 1999, 80, 1004–1020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Clutton-Brock, T.H.; Guinness, F.E.; Albon, S.D. Red Deer: Behavior and Ecology of Two Sexes; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 1982; ISBN 0226110575. [Google Scholar]
- Conradt, L. Measuring the degree of sexual segregation in group-living animals. J. Anim. Ecol. 1998, 67, 217–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ruckstuhl, K. Foraging behaviour and sexual segregation in Bighorn Sheep. Anim. Behav. 1998, 56, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bugalho, M.N.; Milne, J.A. The composition of the diet of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in a Mediterranean Environment: A Case of Summer Nutritional Constraint? For. Ecol. Manag. 2003, 181, 23–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Augustine, D.J.; Mcnaughton, S.J. Ungulate effects on the functional species composition of plant communities: Herbivore selectivity and plant tolerance. J. Wildl. Manag. 1998, 62, 1165–1183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duncan, A.J.; Hartley, S.E.; Iason, G.R. The Effect of monoterpene concentrations in sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) on the browsing behaviour of red deer (Cervus Elaphus). Can. J. Zool. 1994, 72, 1715–1720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Main, M.B.; Weckerly, F.W.; Bleich, V.C. Sexual segregation in ungulates: New directions for research. J. Mammal. 1996, 77, 449–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bowyer, R.T. Sexual segregation in ruminants: Definitions, hypotheses, and implications for conservation and management. J. Mammal. 2004, 85, 1039–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ruckstuhl, K.; Neuhaus, P. Sexual segregation in ungulates: A new approach. Behaviour 2000, 137, 361–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jarman, P.J. The social organisation of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour 1974, 48, 215–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Demment, M.W. Feeding ecology and the evolution of body size of baboons. Afr. J. Ecol. 1983, 21, 219–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Müller, D.W.H.; Codron, D.; Meloro, C.; Munn, A.; Schwarm, A.; Hummel, J.; Clauss, M. Assessing the Jarman-Bell principle: Scaling of intake, digestibility, retention time and gut fill with body mass in mammalian herbivores. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2013, 164, 129–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hofmann, R.R. Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: A comparative view of their digestive system. Oecologia 1989, 78, 443–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bailey, D.W.; Gross, J.E.; Laca, E.A.; Rittenhouse, L.R.; Coughenour, M.B.; Swift, D.M.; Sims, P.L. Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns. J. Range Manag. 1996, 49, 386–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruckstuhl, K.; Neuhaus, P. Sexual segregation in ungulates: A comparative test of three hypotheses. Biol. Rev. 2002, 77, 77–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wang, M.; Alves, J.; Tucker, M.; Yang, W.; Ruckstuhl, K. Effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on ruminating, grazing, and bedding time in bighorn sheep (Ovis Canadensis). PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0206664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gebert, C.; Verheyden-Tixier, H. Variations of diet composition of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in Europe. Mamm. Rev. 2001, 31, 189–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szemethy, L.; Mátrai, K.; Katona, K.; Orosz, S. Seasonal home range shift of red deer hinds, Cervus elaphus: Are there feeding reasons? Folia Zool. Brno 2003, 52, 249–258. [Google Scholar]
- Alves, J. Ecological Assessment of the Red Deer Population in the Lousã Mountain. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Lovari, S.; Cuccus, P.; Murgia, A.; Murgia, C.; Soi, F.; Plantamura, G. Space Use, Habitat selection and browsing effects of red deer in Sardinia. Ital. J. Zool. 2007, 74, 179–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alves, J.; Alves da Silva, A.; Soares, A.M.V.M.; Fonseca, C. Sexual segregation in red deer: Is social behaviour more important than habitat preferences? Anim. Behav. 2013, 85, 501–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alves, J.; Alves da Silva, A.; Soares, A.M.V.M.; Fonseca, C. Spatial and temporal habitat use and selection by red deer: The use of direct and indirect methods. Mamm. Biol. 2014, 79, 338–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bugalho, M.N.; Milne, J.A.; Racey, P.A. The foraging ecology of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in a Mediterranean environment: Is a larger body size advantageous? J. Zool. 2001, 255, 285–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Archibold, O.W. Ecology of World Vegetation; Chapman and Hall Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Garcia, F. Sexual Segregation in Red Deer: A Question of Food? Master’s Thesis, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Maia, M.J.; Rego, F.; Sousa Machado, F. Determining optimal sampling schemes to study red deer diets by fecal analysis. Silva Lusit. 2003, 11, 91–99. [Google Scholar]
- Sparks, D.R.; Malechek, J.C. Estimating percentage dry weight in diets using a microscopic technique. J. Range Manag. 1968, 21, 264–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Christianson, D.; Creel, S. Fecal chlorophyll describes the link between primary production and consumption in a terrestrial herbivore. Ecol. Appl. 2009, 19, 1323–1335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Christianson, D.; Creel, S. Photosynthetic pigments estimate diet quality in forage and feces of elk (Cervus elaphus). Can. J. Zool. 2015, 93, 51–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- R Core Team R. A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2019; Available online: https://www.r-project.org/ (accessed on 29 February 2020).
- Hamilton, N.; Ferry, M. Ggtern: Ternary diagrams using Ggplot2. J. Stat. Softw. 2018, 87, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jost, L. Entropy and diversity. Oikos 2006, 113, 363–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shannon, C.E. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell. Syst. Tech. J. 1948, 27, 379–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schoener, T.W. Resource partitioning in ecological communities: Research on how similar species divide resources helps reveal the natural regulation of species diversity. Science 1974, 185, 27–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roberts, C.; Westbrooke, M.; Florentine, S.; Cook, S. Winter diet of introduced red deer (Cervus elaphus) in woodland vegetation in Grampians National Park, Western Victoria. Aust. Mammal. 2015, 37, 107–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kamler, J.; Homolka, M. Faecal Nitrogen: A potential indicator of red and roe deer diet quality in forest habitats. Folia Zool. 2005, 54, 89–98. [Google Scholar]
- Main, M.B.; Coblentz, B.E. Sexual segregation in Rocky Mountain mule deer. J. Wildl. Manag. 1996, 60, 497–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Putman, R.J.; Culpin, S.; Thirgood, S.J. Dietary differences between male and female fallow deer in sympatry and in allopatry. J. Zool. 1993, 229, 267–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bleich, V.C.; Bowyer, R.T.; Wehausen, J.D. Sexual segregation in mountain sheep: Resources or predation? Wildl. Monogr. 1997, 134, 3–50. [Google Scholar]
- Langvatn, R.; Albon, S.D.; Burkey, T.; Clutton-Brock, T.H. Climate, plant phenology and variation in age of first reproduction in a Temperate herbivore. J. Anim. Ecol. 1996, 65, 653–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bauer, M.; Gomide, J.; da Silva, E.; José Regazzi, A.; Chichorro, J. Comparative analysis of identifiable fragments of forages, by the microhistological tecnhique. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2005, 34, 1841–1850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dearden, B.L.; Pegau, R.E.; Hansen, R.M. Precision of microhistological estimates of ruminant food habits. J. Wildl. Manag. 1975, 39, 402–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonin, M.; Tremblay, J.P.; Côté, S.D. Contributions of digestive plasticity to the ability of white-tailed deer to cope with a low-quality diet. J. Mammal. 2016, 97, 1406–1413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jenks, J.A.; Leslie, D.M.; Lochmiller, R.L.; Anthony, M. Variation in gastrointestinal characteristics of male and female white-tailed deer: Implications for resource partitioning. J. Mammal. 1994, 75, 1045–1053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiang, Z.; Hamasaki, S.; Ueda, H.; Kitahara, M.; Takatsuki, S.; Kishimoto, M. Sexual variations in food quality and gastrointestinal features of sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Japan during winter: Implications for feeding strategy. Zoolog. Sci. 2006, 23, 543–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferron, E.; Verheyden, H.; Hummel, J.; Cargnelutti, B.; Lourtet, B.; Merlet, J.; González-Candela, M.; Angibault, J.M.; Hewison, A.J.M.; Clauss, M. Digestive plasticity as a response to woodland fragmentation in roe deer. Ecol. Res. 2012, 27, 77–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bunnell, F.L.; Gillingham, M.P. Foraging Behavior: Dynamics of dining out. In Bioenergetics of Wild Herbivores; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1985; pp. 53–80. [Google Scholar]
- Arman, B.; Hopcraft, D.; McDonald, I. Nutritional studies on east African herbivores 2. Losses of nitrogen in the faeces. Br. J. Nutr. 1975, 33, 255–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Monteith, K.B.; Monteith, K.L.; Bowyer, R.T.; Leslie, D.M.; Jenks, J.A. Reproductive effects on fecal nitrogen as an index of diet quality: An experimental assessment. J. Mammal. 2014, 95, 301–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heape, W. Sex Antagonism; Constable Limited: London, UK, 1913. [Google Scholar]
- Ruckstuhl, K.; Neuhaus, P. Sexual Segregation in Vertebrates. Ecology of the Two Sexes; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2005. [Google Scholar]
Plant Species/Groups | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
AF (%) | RF (%) | AF (%) | RF (%) | |
Arboreous species | 12.44 | 98.04 | 6.34 | 95.31 |
Acacia melanoxylon | 5.72 | 58.82 | 2.26 | 45.31 |
Castanea sativa | 2.08 | 52.94 | 0.62 | 23.44 |
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana | 1.30 | 64.71 | 1.33 | 81.25 |
Fraxinus sp. | 1.47 | 35.29 | 0.77 | 20.31 |
Laurus nobilis | 1.87 | 47.06 | 1.37 | 23.44 |
Herbaceous species | 30.25 | 100.00 | 32.52 | 100.00 |
-Monocots | 27.57 | 100.00 | 30.04 | 100.00 |
Agrostis castellana | 3.48 | 74.51 | 1.93 | 73.44 |
Dactylis glomerata | 4.71 | 84.31 | 7.41 | 93.75 |
Hordeum murinum | 13.80 | 94.12 | 17.15 | 93.75 |
Other Gramineae | 5.58 | 80.39 | 3.55 | 92.19 |
-Other | 2.69 | 68.63 | 2.48 | 75.00 |
Athyrium filix-femina | 1.25 | 66.67 | 1.45 | 60.94 |
Omphalodes nitida | 1.44 | 47.06 | 1.03 | 67.19 |
Shrub species | 50.62 | 100.00 | 55.79 | 100.00 |
Cytisus striatus | 8.93 | 86.27 | 5.48 | 89.06 |
Erica arborea | 1.82 | 72.55 | 2.97 | 81.25 |
Erica australis | 2.50 | 76.47 | 2.96 | 85.94 |
Erica umbellata | 1.44 | 64.71 | 2.73 | 67.19 |
Genista triacanthos | 1.61 | 70.59 | 1.59 | 50.00 |
Pterospartum tridentatum | 21.75 | 92.16 | 32.62 | 100.00 |
Rubus ulmifolius | 1.83 | 45.10 | 0.78 | 45.31 |
Ulex minor | 10.74 | 90.20 | 6.67 | 84.38 |
Other Species | 6.41 | 100.00 | 5.04 | 95.31 |
Species NI | 0.27 | 45.10 | 0.32 | 43.75 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Garcia, F.; Alves da Silva, A.; Ruckstuhl, K.; Neuhaus, P.; Coelho, C.; Wang, M.; Sousa, J.P.; Alves, J. Differences in the Diets of Female and Male Red Deer: The Meaning for Sexual Segregation. Biology 2023, 12, 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12040540
Garcia F, Alves da Silva A, Ruckstuhl K, Neuhaus P, Coelho C, Wang M, Sousa JP, Alves J. Differences in the Diets of Female and Male Red Deer: The Meaning for Sexual Segregation. Biology. 2023; 12(4):540. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12040540
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcia, Fernanda, António Alves da Silva, Kathreen Ruckstuhl, Peter Neuhaus, Catarina Coelho, Muyang Wang, José Paulo Sousa, and Joana Alves. 2023. "Differences in the Diets of Female and Male Red Deer: The Meaning for Sexual Segregation" Biology 12, no. 4: 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12040540
APA StyleGarcia, F., Alves da Silva, A., Ruckstuhl, K., Neuhaus, P., Coelho, C., Wang, M., Sousa, J. P., & Alves, J. (2023). Differences in the Diets of Female and Male Red Deer: The Meaning for Sexual Segregation. Biology, 12(4), 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12040540