The Development Potential of Spalted Wood Artifacts in China—An Analysis

Abstract

Spalted wood is a natural material characterized by distinctive colors and patterns from wood decay fungi as they digest their substrate and leave behind colored secretions. As an art form, spalted wood was used heavily in western Europe from the 1400s–1600s; however, its use in other parts of the world remains deeply understudied, even in cultures where wood played a dominant social role. The use of spalted wood in China, in particular, is unknown, despite a growing interest by Chinese researchers in modern spalting practices and their potential commercial value. This study systematically reviews the potential historic use, current artistic value, environmental significance, and future application prospects of spalted wood for a Chinese market. By integrating historical records, modern scientific research, and insights from traditional Chinese woodworking, the study provides a comprehensive analysis of the aesthetic and functional value of spalted wood for Chinese markets. The findings indicate that the random and non-reproducible nature of spalted wood imbues it with exceptional artistic appeal and collectability, which has a strong potential to appeal to Chinese furniture design, decorative arts, and high-end interior applications. Furthermore, spalted wood demonstrates considerable potential for resource recycling by turning otherwise non-commercial, pale, white woods into higher value options—a phenomenon that has been studied across Europe and North America. In China, this has the potential to reduce wood waste and advance ecological design. However, challenges remain in fungal infection control, processing techniques, and market adoption. With ongoing advancements in biotechnology and manufacturing processes, spalted wood is poised to gain greater recognition in Chinese art, design, and cultural innovation while also contributing to green manufacturing and sustainable development.

1. Introduction

In Ancient China, wood was not only the primary material for construction but also the core resource for furniture, handicrafts, and architectural decorations. The Chinese people’s appreciation for traditional wooden artifacts stems from a profound historical heritage, a rich cultural background, distinctive artistic charm, and deep cultural significance. This emotional and artistic recognition has secured wooden artifacts an irreplaceable position in Chinese culture, reflecting a deep respect for natural materials and a pursuit of exquisite craftsmanship.

Despite this long history, there does not appear to have been conscious use of spalted wood in historic Chinese woodcraft, which is interesting noting how prevalent spalted wood use is in many other cultures. This is likely due to several factors, such as a preference for lacquerware, a distrust of fungal-infected woods (which would inherently contain spalting), and general color preferences (discussed in detail below). Interest in spalted wood for modern woodwork, however, is growing across the country. This paper examines the nature of that growth, the potential benefits of spalted wood creation and use in China, and how Chinese spalted wood could fit into both a modern and historic European woodworking context. The journal Colorants was chosen for this discussion due to the intersection of historical coloration, both in China and Europe, discussed herein, as well as the more modern aspects of natural coloration that is being developed in China from spalting. This paper traces historic wood surface treatments and coloration practices, as well as discusses how modern natural wood coloration, common in Europe and the U.S.A., is moving to Chinese woodworking. It begins first with a definition of spalting and a brief history of its use in the European and North American markets to give context to Chinese use.

2. Origins and Development of the Spalting Coloration Technique in Europe and North America

Spalted wood is a coloration technique whereby certain decay fungi are utilized to naturally color wood through their secretions. The process can be simple or elaborate, based on the needs of the user, but generally involves inoculating pigment-generating fungi onto wood and allowing said fungi to lightly colonize the substrate. By inducing antagonism within the fungi—usually by inoculating with a competing fungus—the fungi secrete protective secondary metabolites into the wood. In spalting fungi, these secondary metabolites are either composed of a thick, dark melanin that makes distinctive lines on the wood or are made of bright, vibrant colors. Spalting as a natural wood colorant has a long history in woodcraft, dating back to at least the 14th century [1].

Spalted wood has gained widespread recognition as a valuable material in both artistic and functional contexts in Europe and North America [1]. Briefly, these developments will be discussed so as to give greater context to current Chinese developments.

2.1. Artistic Origins and Early Applications in Europe

The use of spalted wood can be traced back to the Renaissance period in Europe, where its natural aesthetic properties were appreciated in fine woodworking [2]. During the 14th and 15th centuries in Italy, artisans incorporated spalted wood into intricate marquetry and inlays, utilizing its natural contrasts to enhance designs [3]. By the 16th century, the technique had spread to Germany, particularly in Augsburg, where the so-called “green oak” with natural blue–green patterns became a hallmark of high-quality furniture and decorative items, as shown in Figure 1 [3]. Craftsmen used the natural blue–green patterns in the wood to decorate furniture and objects, although, at the time, their source was not scientifically understood [4]. Research has confirmed that the coloration in these works was primarily produced by the secondary metabolite xylindein from the soft rotting fungus Chlorociboria spp., which is known for its high lightfastness [5,6]. Italian artists Fra Giovanni and Fra Damiano da Bergamo extensively utilized spalted wood to enrich the colors of their works, particularly in depicting natural landscapes, foliage, and intricate clothing details. These pieces are frequently featured in art collections in Florence, such as the panel decorations of the Gubbio Studiolo, demonstrating the unique ability of spalted wood to enhance color vibrancy and visual depth in artistic compositions.

In 19th-century Britain, spalted wood found application in Tunbridge ware, where it was used to create commemorative boxes and other decorative items featuring intricate inlays. During this period, the craft of spalted wood showcased its enduring value post-industrialization. Artisans incorporated spalted wood into a wider range of product designs through mechanized production methods, preserving its decorative appeal while achieving broader accessibility [7].

Europe has historically emphasized the artistic application of spalted wood. Building on this early focus, Modern Europe places greater importance on technological innovation and market development, successfully integrating the decorative and functional aspects of spalted wood. This comprehensive approach has not only facilitated its widespread use in high-end markets but also provided valuable insights and inspiration for other regions.

2.2. Development in North America—Both Artistic and Scientific

In North America, the systematic scientific study of spalted wood began in the 20th century. In 1933, Campbell published research on the “zone lines” in plant tissues, discovering that the soft rotting ascomycete fungus Xylaria polymorpha could form distinctive black lines in hardwoods [7]. These fungal markings not only imparted unique aesthetic value to the wood but also enhanced its structural strength. This research laid the foundation for the scientific study of spalted wood [8]. Subsequently, Campbell continued to investigate the influence of other fungal species, such as Armillaria mellea and Polyporus squamosus, on the formation of zone lines in wood [9]. In the 1980s, Brigham Young University established the first laboratory dedicated to spalted wood, and, in 1987, white rot fungi capable of forming fungal patterns were isolated. Research on the coloring mechanisms of white rot fungi revealed how fungi degrade wood to form distinctive patterns [10].

In the 21st century, Professor Robinson from Oregon State University has significantly advanced the understanding and application of spalted wood. Their seminal work, “Spalted Wood: The History, Science, and Art of a Unique Material” (2016) [11], comprehensively showcases examples of spalted wood artifacts from the 15th to the 21st centuries, including choir stalls, relief sculptures, and modern furniture. Another key publication, “Spalting 101” (2021) [12], provides an in-depth explanation of the biological processes underlying spalted wood formation. It explores the environmental factors necessary for its development, such as humidity, temperature, and wood species, and introduces methods for artificially inducing spalting. The history of spalting in other countries has also been investigated by this lab, particularly in Peru [13], Chile [14], and Spain [15], examining the historical and cultural significance in traditional and contemporary arts, particularly in furniture-making and woodcarving. The studies of Spanish and Peruvian spalted artworks included a non-destructive method to evaluate whether color on the wooden artwork was completed by fungi (spalting) or dyes by looking at whether the rays were darker colored or the background wood. In spalted wood, the ray cells are often pigmented first and the surrounding tissue second. In dyed and pigmented wood, the rays are often the last to take color as the synthetic colorants move through a “path of least resistance”. An additional paper of note is “Cultures of Spalting” (2022) [13], which takes a multidisciplinary approach to analyze the historical, cultural, artistic, and economic value of spalted wood. It discusses the growing global demand for spalted wood and explores how modern artists and woodworkers combine advanced techniques with traditional craftsmanship to create high-aesthetic-value pieces. Robinson’s research has greatly facilitated the widespread application of spalted wood in modern furniture and decorative arts. Furthermore, it has underscored the significant potential of fungal pigments as eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic chemical dyes, paving the way for more sustainable material practices [14,15,16].

From a more scientific perspective, the Robinson Lab has studied how spalting formation varies due to wood species, fungal species, environmental conditions (such as humidity, temperature, and ventilation), and the extent of fungal infection. Because environmental control is challenging, the complete formation of characteristic patterns typically requires several months or even longer. Under controlled laboratory conditions, initial fungal patterns can be observed within weeks by manipulating environmental variables. Current research emphasizes fungal biotechnology, leveraging precise fungal cultivation and genetic engineering to control spalting patterns while optimizing pigment yield and production efficiency, as shown in Figure 2. These advancements support broader cross-industry applications, such as sustainable, human-safe dyeing for wooden crafts, and construction materials, contributing significantly to modern industrial and artistic practices [17,18,19,20,21].

In both Europe and North America, spalted wood has evolved from a naturally occurring phenomenon to a deliberately cultivated material. Advances in fungal biology and biotechnological applications have allowed for greater control over spalting processes. In Europe, there is a strong focus on integrating spalted wood into sustainable design, aligning with environmental standards and luxury markets. North American efforts, meanwhile, emphasize scientific research to improve consistency and expand applications, including architectural elements and industrial products. Despite regional differences, the shared emphasis on sustainable practices, aesthetic enhancement, and innovation underlines the global appeal and future potential of spalted wood. The greatest strength of spalted wood comes from the material’s bridge between art and science, history, and modern design. Spalted wood is a treasured historical technique, a modern colorant; a revolutionary tool in development of green energy (via thin films in solar cells, batteries, etc.) and the catalyst for the Studio Woodturning Movement in the United States. Spalted wood holds endless possibilities but has definitive differences in use across cultures.

3. Evolution of Surface Treatment Techniques in Chinese Wooden Artifacts—A History Leading to Spalting

The inherent colors and patterns of spalted wood significantly enhance the aesthetic quality of artworks, underscoring its unique decorative value. In western countries, spalted wood has been extensively utilized in woodworking and the creation of artistic objects. In contrast, there are no historical records of spalted wood application in Ancient China yet known. Instead of using naturally colored wood, Ancient Chinese artisans developed a variety of surface treatment and coloring techniques for wood. These methods not only fulfilled decorative requirements but also improved the durability of wooden artifacts [22]. The integration of functionality and aesthetics in these techniques highlights the distinctive allure of traditional Chinese woodworking. The background provided here on Chinese surface embellishment of wood is to give context to a later discussion on emerging trends in Chinese use of spalted wood.

3.1. Polishing and Smoothing—A Critical Surface Treatment

While the process of sanding and polishing (also known as sanding and finishing) is by no means unique to Chinese woodworking, it is worth noting its important role for the country’s artisans. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the development of carved lacquer highlighted the precision of sanding and polishing. After intricate carvings were completed, extensive polishing was required to produce a smooth, glossy surface that revealed the fine patterns and vibrant lacquer finish, exemplifying the craftsmanship of the period [23,24,25]. Hence, while there was nothing technically unique about sanding techniques in China, the role was vital to showcase the pivotal lacquerware work, a surface colorant and treatment that became the cornerstone of Chinese woodwork—and a polar opposite to the more subtle fungal colorations of spalting.

3.2. Chinese Lacquer—A Surface Treatment with Color

The origins of Chinese lacquer—a finish that can hold pigment and thus change the external color of wood—can be traced back to the Neolithic period, with the earliest example being a lacquer bowl excavated from the Hemudu site in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, signifying a history spanning over 7000 years [26]. This bowl is a food container with a simple shape. In particular, the outer wall of the bowl is coated with natural raw lacquer, and the surface of the bowl is vermilion. It is one of the earliest lacquerwares discovered in China.

During the Qin and Han dynasties, lacquerware techniques reached new levels of refinement, with artisans using natural minerals such as cinnabar and carbon black to create vibrant red and black lacquers. Masterpieces like the lacquer tripod with cloud patterns unearthed from the Mawangdui Han Tombs demonstrate the period’s advanced craftsmanship, featuring elaborate patterns and vivid colors [27,28,29].

From the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, lacquerware became deeply integrated into daily life and Buddhist practices, marking a period of flourishing craftsmanship. Techniques such as gold and silver foil inlay, as well as mother-of-pearl inlay, emerged and reached their zenith. During the Song Dynasty, mother-of-pearl inlay was commonly used for bookcases designed to store scriptures. For example, as shown in Figure 3, the lid of such a box features a design of three clustered floral patterns, with a semi-circular crystal embedded at the center, complemented by colorful gemstones. The sides of the box are adorned with intricate inlays of floral motifs, including pomegranate and peony vines. Lacquerware thus became a significant cultural medium, embodying an elegant and minimalist aesthetic style characteristic of the period [27,28,29,30].

3.3. Plant-Based Dyes and Coloring—A Move Toward More Color

Chinese artisans were not only interested in lacquerware—they also used plant-based dyes to color wood. The earliest recorded use of plant-based dyes dates back to the Neolithic period in China, where pigments were extracted from plant roots, leaves, fruits, and petals. Simple methods such as boiling or soaking were employed to extract the pigments, which were then applied to wood decorations [31]. There are no records of spalted wood being used for such dye work, but this certainly does not mean that it did not occur. The use of spalted wood in Ancient European woodworks was not unearthed until the 1990s [6]; chemists as early as the late 1700s in Germany had begun experimenting with the extraction of the fungal pigments directly from the decaying wood [13]. At this time, however, there is no current study on the possibility of extracted fungal pigments being used to color Ancient Chinese woodware.

From the Qin and Han dynasties to the Tang dynasty, the techniques for extracting and applying plant dyes saw significant advancements. Mordants, such as alum, were introduced to improve color fastness and stability. Between the Yuan and Qing dynasties, the techniques for composite coloring using plant-based dyes became highly refined. Artisans blended different plant dyes to achieve a broader range of colors, such as combining Coptis chinensis with indigo to produce green or mixing safflower with gallnut to create deep red or purple hues [31]. The dyeing process involved steps like soaking, drying, and repeated dyeing to enhance color depth and stability, followed by sun-drying to fix the pigments and prevent fading.

Since the 20th century, with the rise of environmental awareness, plant-based dyes have regained attention in China. Modern research has focused on the cultural preservation and ecological benefits of this ancient technique. New extraction methods, such as solvent extraction and supercritical fluid extraction, have significantly improved the efficiency of pigment extraction [12]. Today, plant-based dyeing is widely applied in wooden crafts, as shown in Figure 4, and the use of spalted pigments is beginning to emerge.

4. Development of Spalted Wood in China

The development of spalted wood in China is a relatively recent phenomenon, but the country has shown increasing interest in utilizing this unique material due to its aesthetic appeal, ecological value, and potential applications in both traditional and modern craftsmanship.

4.1. Early Recognition and Traditional Use

In Ancient China, the awareness of wood’s natural color changes due to environmental factors can be found in early texts like Ben Cao Gang Mu (Compendium of Materia Medica) and Shan Hai Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas). These texts describe wood varieties that exhibit natural color patterns and textures. However, the early focus was not on the aesthetic value of fungal-induced coloration but rather on the medicinal or material properties of various woods.

In traditional Chinese views, the discoloration of wood caused by fungi is often regarded as a sign of decreased wood quality, and such discoloration is typically seen as a “defect” that requires treatment. In construction and furniture making, materials are preferred for their uniform grain and stable color, such as Pterocarpus indicus Willd and Dalbergia odorifera T. C. Chen [32]. For instance, during the restoration of the Forbidden City, pine (Pinus spp.) and Phoebe Zhennan S. K. Lee & F. N. Wei, known for their strong resistance to corrosion, were preferred, while wood affected by fungal discoloration or with fungal patterns was avoided [32,33]. This viewpoint stems from the utilitarian approach to wood use in China, which prioritizes the durability and lifespan of wood. As a result, the wood industry and research institutions have focused on developing methods to prevent fungal discoloration, such as using preservatives and drying treatments to inhibit fungal growth and extend the wood’s service life. This practical mindset has directly influenced the development of spalted wood in China.

In Chinese history, the discoloration and texture changes caused by fungal infection were often regarded as early signs of wood decay, thereby diminishing the material’s perceived value. Under this notion, spalted wood was likely categorized as “inferior” material and thus excluded from applications in construction, furniture, or crafts. Such wood was typically repurposed in less critical ways, such as for making simple containers, storage boxes, or tool handles, or directly used as fuel. Consequently, the unique natural patterns of spalted wood received little attention, leading to its lack of recognition and utilization in Chinese historical culture.

4.2. Modern Chinese Spalting

Currently, no spalted-wood-based woodworking products are available in the Chinese market—yet. This is not to say that the Chinese people continue to be disinterested in the art form. There is a growing body of scientific work being carried out in China on spalting, with researchers choosing to follow the more modern-art–science blend of spalting than the traditional high art forms. Hence, the information on spalted wood in China primarily focuses on scientific research, including its formation mechanisms, fungal selection, fungal pigment cultivation, and the bioinformatics identification of fungal pigments. The following section details the evolution of modern spalting in China through the lens of scientific advancements.

Professor Zhou Zhongming, a renowned forest pathologist from Beijing Forestry University, proposed in his publication “Wood Pathology” in 1991 that wood in the early stages of decay, where cellulose and hemicellulose have not been significantly degraded, can be treated with preservatives to delay further decay. Such wood can still be utilized as non-structural materials, including doors, windows, furniture, and certain interior decorative elements. Its natural texture and appearance retain a degree of aesthetic appeal, offering economic value. It is this change of perspective that appears to have launched a “spalting inquiry” in China, at least within the scientific community [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46].

Beginning in 2010, Chinese scholars have been studying the mechanisms of spalted wood formation and its application value. Professor Qiu Jian’s team at Southwest Forestry University, supported by both national and local natural science funding, has conducted in-depth research on the adaptability of fungal species and the process of wood spalting. They found that endogenous fungi enhance their environmental adaptability by generating spalting patterns, regulating wood moisture to maintain a suitable growth environment, and promoting fungal reproduction. Based on these findings, the team has conducted research on fungal strain selection and optimization and developed a comprehensive technology system for the controlled production of spalted wood patterns, including strain selection, wood treatment, and process parameter control. These technologies have been patented, providing a solid foundation for the commercialization of spalted wood [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50]

Meanwhile, Professor Sun Jianping’s team at Guangxi University has been focusing on fungal pigment extraction and wood dyeing techniques since 2018. Their research explores the pigment production patterns of different fungi under various environmental conditions, the screening of suitable fungal species for wood dyeing, and the optimization of dyeing process parameters (such as time, temperature, and humidity). Additionally, the team has conducted in-depth analysis of the lightfastness, durability, and other properties of natural fungal pigments, providing valuable technical support for the long-term stability of wood dyeing. Their work has made significant progress in developing environmentally friendly dyeing technologies and has expanded the application of wood dyeing to various sectors [42,43,44].

The team led by Liu Jikai at the Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, has been dedicated to researching higher fungal pigments. They isolated a novel pigment from the fermentation liquid of Annulohypoxylon species, which they named Annulohypoxylon pigment. This pigment has a unique structural framework and shows significant anti-HIV-1 activity, revealing its potential for antiviral applications [43]. Additionally, Professor Fu Junsheng’s team at the College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, has researched the classification, structure, synthesis pathways, physicochemical properties, and biological activities of fungal melanins [41]. Their findings show that fungal melanins exhibit excellent resistance to high temperatures and oxidation, with potential antibacterial and immune-modulating activities. These studies highlight the vast potential and value of fungal melanins for industrial applications. This scientific work has gradually transitioned toward applied development [43,44,45]. Due to their environmental friendliness and biodegradability, fungal pigments are widely studied as colorants for food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and textiles. Notably, red pigments from Monascus spp. have found widespread use in the food industry.

5. Integrating the Scientific Research of Spalted Wood with Traditional Chinese Wood Culture

Compared to the western aesthetic appreciation of spalted wood’s decorative qualities, traditional Chinese woodworking places greater emphasis on the material’s functionality and durability. However, since the 21th century, with the increase in international exchanges and advancements in spalted wood preparation techniques, its artistic characteristics have become increasingly prominent. This has facilitated a transition in China from viewing spalted wood as defective material to recognizing it as a modern artistic medium. Integrating the scientific research of spalted wood with traditional Chinese woodcraft culture has thus become imperative.

5.1. Merging Natural Aesthetics with Traditional Cultural Ideals

Chinese traditional culture advocates the natural concept of “harmony between human and nature”. There are many applications of unique patterns of wood in Ancient Chinese books. Spalted wood, with its naturally formed unique texture and color, is highly consistent with this cultural core, yet not mentioned in Ancient Chinese records. Perhaps Ancient China used it but did not accurately define its name, which happened with some regularity in Ancient Japanese woodwork [46]. What we do know is that the concept of spalted wood, particularly spalted maple, was introduced to China around the beginning of the 21th century. Around 2000, at the Music China exhibition, high-end guitars made from spalted maple by renowned North American and European brands such as Taylor and PRS entered the Chinese market. Concurrently, as Chinese scholars initiated research on spalted wood, the material found preliminary applications in wooden crafts [47], for example, the appearance patent of the spalted wood crafts applied by Southwest Forestry University as shown in Figure 5 [48] and Figure 6 [49]. By combining the natural beauty of spalted wood with traditional Chinese crafts, such as using spalted wood as the base material for traditional wood carving and inlay crafts, while showing the natural texture of spalted wood, integrating traditional Chinese cultural elements will surely produce a unique artistic effect.

5.2. Promoting Environmental Sustainability in Traditional Craftsmanship

Outside of harmonizing with traditional Chinese culture, the use of spalted wood fits well with emerging concepts of sustainability within the country. The production process of spalted wood often involves repurposing discarded or decayed timber, transforming what was once considered “waste fungal-decayed wood” into high-value materials. This approach adheres to the principles of sustainability by conserving resources and reducing waste. The integration of modern finishing technologies with fungal pigment staining processes further provides environmentally friendly and high-quality raw materials for traditional handicrafts. This technique eliminates the environmental impact associated with chemical dyes used in conventional staining methods, achieving greater sustainability while preserving the natural characteristics and unique patterns of the wood.

Such practices resonate with traditional Chinese philosophical concepts that emphasize the optimal use of resources. For example, Chinese woodcarving artisans historically sought to harmonize their craftsmanship with the wood’s natural grain and form, striving to efficiently utilize every part of the raw material and maximize its intrinsic value. Similarly, through handcrafted spalted wood products, such as art pieces and home decor, the concept of resource utilization is intertwined with cultural traditions. This approach enriches the cultural and economic value of spalted wood products, fully realizing the potential for green design and sustainable development in woodworking.

5.3. Integrating Traditional Chinese Culture with International Design

Integrating traditional Chinese cultural elements with modern design styles in the development of spalted-wood-based crafts not only embodies material culture but also serves as a bridge for the global dissemination of traditional Chinese culture. Advances in modern scientific technology have significantly optimized the production process of spalted wood. For instance, artificial control of fungal infection allows for the creation of spalted wood with clear patterns and controllable designs, substantially enhancing the consistency of its grain and the vibrancy of its colors. This technological innovation not only elevates the aesthetic value of the material but also broadens its applications in high-end markets such as handicrafts and furniture. Building on these improvements, the unique patterns of spalted wood can be combined with traditional Chinese motifs, such as cloud patterns and dragon designs, to create modern artworks infused with rich Chinese cultural characteristics. Furthermore, by integrating modern aesthetic principles into the design of traditional crafts, these products are made more appealing to international markets, thereby enhancing their global competitiveness.

In international markets, these products stand out for their uniqueness and cultural depth, serving as effective carriers of traditional Chinese culture. Spalted-wood-based crafts not only showcase the exquisite craftsmanship of traditional Chinese arts but also enhance China’s influence in the global cultural marketplace, fostering deeper and more meaningful international cultural exchanges.

6. Barriers to Chinese Adoption of Spalted Wood

There are a number of potential barriers to spalted wood gaining more widespread acceptance in China. The first is traditionalist culture, specifically that wood with discoloration is often regarded as “decayed” or “defective”. Ancient Chinese craftsmen emphasized practicality and tended to favor wood with uniform grain and stable color for crafting furniture or artwork. For construction materials, they prioritized wood that was free from decay and insect damage, with excellent strength. This perspective made it difficult for spalted wood to gain acceptance in the mainstream market, and it will take more than a handful of scientists researching spalted wood to help reshape consumer and crafter perceptions.

Another aspect of Chinese culture that must be softened is the desire for lacquerware. The use of Chinese lacquer dates back to around 5000 BC and is still widely utilized today. The Renaissance and its associated spalted wood art, which occurred between the 14th and 17th centuries, originated in Italy and spread across Europe. Although spalted wood was promoted and applied during the Renaissance, its impact on China, where lacquer and natural dyeing techniques had already been widely used for wood decoration, was minimal to nonexistent. While woodworkers in North America can look to Europe for historic spalted wood roots (and thereby connect to cultural heritage), there does not appear to be any Chinese cultural heritage of spalted wood for modern Chinese to connect to.

There are two other potential barriers outside of culture. The first are technological limitation. The formation of spalted wood relies on the directional infection of wood by fungi. However, precisely controlling the growth conditions of the fungi, such as humidity, temperature, and oxygen levels, to achieve the desired spalted pattern is highly challenging. If fungal infection is not properly controlled, the wood may become excessively decayed, losing both its usability and aesthetic appeal. Currently, research on the extraction and stability of fungal pigments is still in its early stages, with limitations in areas such as light resistance and corrosion resistance. This research is well underway in the United States and parts of Europe but is still emerging in China.

China also struggles with market awareness, both in terms of consumer awareness of spalted wood and crafter awareness. High-quality solid wood furniture commonly purchased in China is characterized by its dense texture, beautiful grain, deep color, and high collectible value. However, most consumers have not encountered spalted wood, and there are few spalted wood products available on the market. As a result, consumers lack an understanding of the aesthetic value and environmental benefits of spalted wood.

7. Pathways for the Development and Application of Spalted Wood in China

7.1. Scientific Research and Technological Development

The research and application of spalted wood requires extensive integration of international expertise. Chinese researchers must continue to both grow their interior market and learn from the cultural heritage of spalting in Europe and North America. New spalting advancements in China must be properly disseminated, both through academic conferences and wood-trade journals around the world. Such efforts will not only facilitate the adoption of cutting-edge technologies but also enhance the global influence of Chinese scholars in spalted wood research.

China’s vast territory and diverse ecological environments offer a rich source of fungal resources for spalted wood studies. Research teams can focus on isolating and cultivating native fungal strains suitable for staining spalted wood while conducting in-depth investigations into their metabolic products and staining properties. For example, Professor Qiu Jian’s team at Southwest Forestry University has conducted significant research on fungal diversity and wood modification, providing a strong foundation for the development of spalted wood.

Artificial intelligence (AI) can optimize the conditions for fungal staining and enhance the aesthetic appeal of spalting patterns through big data analysis. In recent years, advancements in biotechnology have made the large-scale production of spalted wood increasingly feasible. Techniques such as genetic engineering and targeted cultivation enable precise control over the formation of spalting patterns. Researchers in the United States are actively developing AI-based fungal infection simulation systems to optimize production conditions [50]. These systems integrate intelligent sensors, image analysis tools, robotics, and advanced bioreactors into filamentous fungi cultivation processes. Moreover, cutting-edge machine learning techniques are employed to refine production parameters and improve the consistency of spalting patterns. Through the application of soft sensors and artificial neural network models, such as multiphase artificial neural networks (MANNs), these studies can accurately predict the dynamic growth of fungi within complex substrates. This approach not only enhances production efficiency but also significantly reduces production cycles, paving the way for the sustainable and scalable application of spalted wood.

7.2. Integration of Education and Culture

Incorporating the application of spalted wood materials into courses such as furniture design, product design, art design, and architectural design in universities can cultivate a new generation of designers with knowledge and interest in this material. By integrating spalted wood into students’ design practices, they can better understand its potential and develop innovative applications. Efforts should also be made to familiarize artisans and furniture designers with spalted wood, encouraging its use in blending traditional Chinese furniture styles (such as those from the Ming and Qing dynasties) with contemporary designs.

The unique natural patterns of spalted wood can be utilized to create carvings or furniture that retain their inherent aesthetic appeal while incorporating elements of Chinese cultural heritage. Additionally, spalted wood can play a significant role in the preservation and development of China’s intangible cultural heritage. By using spalted wood in the production of traditional handicrafts, its artistic value can be merged with cultural preservation, creating items that reflect both aesthetic and historical significance.

7.3. Industrial Application and Market Development

Due to the rarity and distinctiveness of spalted wood, it can be positioned in the high-end market for the creation of luxury furniture, craftworks, or custom accessories. For example, Dr. Zhang Yang from the College of Furniture and Art Design at Northeast Forestry University leads an innovative entrepreneurship project, where students handcraft custom pens using burl wood, a project that has gained widespread appreciation among faculty and students. This method can also be applied to the gradual promotion of spalted wood in China. Furthermore, China’s e-commerce platforms offer distinct advantages, enabling the use of short video platforms and design exhibitions to highlight the natural formation process, unique aesthetics, and sustainability of spalted wood. Collaborating with prominent influencers or designers in the field of sustainable design could further boost public awareness and the recognition of spalted wood.

7.4. Economic and Policy Support

The fungal staining technology for spalted wood is an eco-friendly wood modification method that aligns with China’s green development goals. The government can provide policy support, such as research and development subsidies, tax incentives, and other measures, to encourage businesses and research institutions to engage in the research and production of spalted wood. Additionally, conducting durability tests and environmental certifications on the wood treated with fungal staining can increase consumer trust in spalted wood.

8. Conclusions

Spalted wood has a long history of use in western arts and is experiencing a vibrant renaissance around the world, both in artistic and scientific spaces. For the past decade, China has begun investing in spalted wood research from the scientific side, and artworks are beginning to emerge that blend Chinese wood traditions and this natural coloration process. By following these aforementioned pathways, particularly around market development, policy support, and education, China can fully explore the aesthetic and practical value of spalted wood, achieving synergy in scientific research, craftsmanship, industrial development, and cultural promotion, thereby laying a solid foundation for its domestic and international market adoption.