Electroplating of Semiconductor Materials for Applications in Large Area Electronics: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. An Overview of Electrodeposition Technique
3. Factors Influencing Electrodeposition
3.1. Solutes, Solvents, and Deposition Electrolytes
3.2. Electrolytic Bath pH Value
3.3. Deposition Temperature
3.4. Deposition Current Density
3.5. Duration of Deposition and Thickness
4. Strengths and Weaknesses of Electrodeposition
4.1. Strengths of Electrodeposition
4.1.1. Electrolytic Bath Life Longevity and Self -Purification
4.1.2. Ease of Doping Intrinsic and Extrinsic
4.1.3. Bandgap Engineering Capability
4.1.4. Low Cost and Simplicity
4.1.5. Scalability and Manufacturability
4.2. Weaknesses of Electrodeposition
4.2.1. Instability of Current Density during Deposition
4.2.2. Control and Regulation of Ions within the Electrolytic Bath
4.2.3. Formation of Solution-Based Complexes
4.2.4. Extrinsic Doping of Electrolytic Bath by the Electrodes
4.2.5. Non-Uniformity of Electrodeposited Semiconductor Layers
4.2.6. Post-Growth Treatment
5. All-Electroplated Photovoltaic Devices
6. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgment
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material Electroplated | Eg (eV) | Precursors Used for Electroplating | Comments | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
CuInSe2 | ~1.00 | CuSO4 for Cu ions, In2(SO4)3 for In ions and H2SeO3 for Se ions | Ability to grow both p- and n-type material | [9] |
CdTe | 1.45 | CdSO4 or Cd(NO3)2 or CdCl2 for Cd ions and TeO2 for Te ions | Ability to grow both p- and n-type CdTe using Cd-sulphate, nitrate, and chloride precursors | [40,41] |
CuInGaSe2 | 1.00–1.70 | CuSO4 for Cu ions, In2(SO4)3 for In ions, Ga2(SO4)3 for Ga ions and H2SeO3 for Se ions | Ability to grow both p- and n-type material | [42] |
CdSe | 1.90 | CdCl2 for Cd ions and SeO2 for Se ions | – | [43] |
InSe | 1.90 | InCl3 for In ions and SeO2 for Se ions | – | [44] |
GaSe | 2.00 | Ga2(SO4)2 for Ga ions and SeO2 for Se ions | – | – |
ZnTe | 1.90–2.60 | ZnSO4 for Zn ions and TeO2 for Te ions | Ability to grow both p- and n-type material | [45] |
CdS | 2.42 | CdCl2 for Cd ions and Na2S2O3, NH4S2O3 or NH2CSNH2 for S | Conductivity type is always n-type | [29,46,47] |
CdMnTe | 1.57–2.50 | CdSO4 for Cd ions, MnSO4 for Mn ions and TeO2 for Te ions | – | – |
ZnSe | 2.70 | ZnSO4 for Zn ions and SeO2 for Se ions | Ability to grow both p- and n-type material | [36] |
ZnO | 3.30 | Zn(NO3)2 for Zn ions | – | [37] |
ZnS | 3.75 | ZnSO4 for Zn and (NH4)2S2O3 for S ions | Ability to grow both p- and n-type material | [38] |
Polyaniline (PAni) | – | C6H5NH2 and H2SO4 | To use as a pinhole plugging layer | [39] |
Parameters | Values | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CdTe Growth Voltage (mV) | 1340 | 1360 | 1370 | 1380 | 1400 |
I–V under dark condition | |||||
Rsh (Ω) | 1016 | >105 | >105 | >105 | >105 |
Rs (kΩ) | 0.21 | 0.80 | 0.50 | 1.43 | 1.50 |
log (RF) | 0.4 | 3.5 | 3.9 | 3.3 | 3.0 |
Io (A) | 2.5 × 10−5 | 3.9 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−9 | 3.2 × 10−9 | 5.0 × 10−9 |
n | >2.00 | 1.95 | 1.86 | 1.58 | 1.86 |
Φb (eV) | >0.52 | >0.76 | >0.81 | >0.77 | >0.77 |
I–V under AM1.5 illumination condition | |||||
Isc (mA) | 0.53 | 0.62 | 0.65 | 0.82 | 0.57 |
Jsc (mA cm−2) | 16.88 | 19.75 | 20.70 | 26.11 | 18.15 |
Voc (V) | 0.23 | 0.49 | 0.72 | 0.60 | 0.57 |
Fill factor | 0.31 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 0.45 | 0.48 |
Efficiency (%) | 1.20 | 4.45 | 7.50 | 7.05 | 4.97 |
C–V under dark condition | |||||
σ × 10−4 (Ω cm−1) | 1.41 | – | 2.85 | − | 6.03 |
NA or ND (cm−3) | 7.74 × 1016 | 3.10 × 1014 | 9.10 × 1014 | ||
µ (cm2 V−1 s−1) | 0.01 | 5.74 | 4.14 | ||
Co (pF) | 1630 | 330 | 370 | ||
W (nm) | 187.6 | 926.7 | 826.5 |
Properties | Configuration | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
g/FTO/n-CdS/n-CdTe/Au (Two-Layer Device) | g/FTO/n-CdS/n-CdTe/p-CdTe/Au (Three-Layer Device) | g/FTO/n-CdS/n-CdTe/p-CdTe/Cu-Au (Three-Layer Device) | Glass/FTO/n-ZnS/n-CdS/n-CdTe/Au (Three-Layer Device) | |
I–V under dark condition | ||||
Rsh (Ω) | >105 | >7.2 × 105 | 106 | >105 |
Rs (kΩ) | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.92 | 0.47 |
log (RF) | 3.9 | 4.1 | 3.5 | 4.8 |
Io (A) | 1.0 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−9 | 3.16 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−9 |
n | 1.86 | 1.86 | 1.68 | 1.60 |
Φb (eV) | >0.81 | >0.80 | >0.80 | >0.82 |
I–V under 1.5 AM illumination condition | ||||
Isc (mA) | 0.65 | 1.06 | 1.85 | 1.07 |
Jsc (mA cm−2) | 20.70 | 33.80 | 58.9 | 34.08 |
Voc (V) | 0.72 | 0.73 | 0.64 | 0.73 |
Fill factor | 0.50 | 0.62 | 0.50 | 0.57 |
Efficiency (%) | 7.50 | 15.3 | 18.5 | 14.18 |
C–V under dark condition | ||||
σ × 10−4 (Ω cm)−1 | 2.85 | – | – | 8.82 |
ND-NA (cm−3) | 3.10 × 1014 | 6.67 × 1014 | 1.82 × 1014 | 7.79 × 1014 |
µ (cm2 V−1 s−1) | 5.74 | – | – | 7.07 |
Co (pF) | 330 | 395 | 160 | 280 |
W (nm) | 926.7 | – | – | 1092.2 |
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Ojo, A.A.; Dharmadasa, I.M. Electroplating of Semiconductor Materials for Applications in Large Area Electronics: A Review. Coatings 2018, 8, 262. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings8080262
Ojo AA, Dharmadasa IM. Electroplating of Semiconductor Materials for Applications in Large Area Electronics: A Review. Coatings. 2018; 8(8):262. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings8080262
Chicago/Turabian StyleOjo, Ayotunde Adigun, and Imyhamy Mudiy Dharmadasa. 2018. "Electroplating of Semiconductor Materials for Applications in Large Area Electronics: A Review" Coatings 8, no. 8: 262. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings8080262