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Article

A Comprehensive Study of Oxide Skin Formation on the Surface of Dichalcogenides and Its Effect on Sensing Properties

by
Aigul Shongalova
1,
Danil W. Boukhvalov
1,2,
Abay S. Serikkanov
1,3 and
Nikolay A. Chuchvaga
1,*
1
Institute of Physics and Technology, Satbayev University, Ibragimov Str. 11, Almaty 050032, Kazakhstan
2
Institute of Materials Physics and Chemistry, College of Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
3
National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan Under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Shevchenko Str. 28, Almaty 050010, Kazakhstan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2025, 15(9), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15091108
Submission received: 2 September 2025 / Revised: 18 September 2025 / Accepted: 19 September 2025 / Published: 20 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Properties and Applications of Thin Films)
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Abstract

This study systematically investigates the structural stability and surface chemical behavior of selected transition metal dichalcogenides (AX2, where A = V, Mo, Pt; X = S, Se, Te) in both 1T and 2H phases. We evaluate surface chemical stability by computing the energetics of oxygen molecule adsorption and subsequent decomposition, simulating the formation of an AO2 surface dioxide monolayer across all compounds. Additionally, the impact of surface oxidation on NO2 sensing performance under varying temperatures and analyte concentrations is examined. Our findings emphasize the critical role of surface oxidation and oxygen competition in accurately predicting and understanding the chemical properties of these materials.

1. Introduction

Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have demonstrated a broad array of real and potential applications, drawing on their layered structure, tunable electronic properties, and surface chemical versatility [1,2]. Semiconducting TMDs such as MoS2 and WSe2 are widely investigated for use in field-effect transistors, integrated circuits, and flexible/wearable electronics, offering high mobility, scalable miniaturization, and good mechanical flexibility [3,4,5]. In the area of flexible display technologies and logic circuits, TMD-based devices also benefit from the mechanical robustness and solution processability of TMDs [3,4]. TMDs serve as catalysts or catalyst supports for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen reduction, and other electrochemical transformations, often enhancing activity and durability via interface and edge engineering [6,7,8]. Metal–TMD hybrids have been explored to optimize catalytic activity, stability, and selectivity in energy devices [7,8]. Their highly tunable band gaps and intense interaction with light support photodetectors, solar cells, light-emitting devices, and quantum/valleytronic applications [3,5].
The chemical formula of these materials is AX2, where A is the metal, and X = S, Se, or Te. Gas sensing is one potential application of these materials. TMDs possess high surface-to-volume ratios and distinctive surface chemistry, facilitating gas sensing (e.g., NO2, NH3, H2S) and chemical sensors with exceptional sensitivity and selectivity [9,10,11]. Biosensing platforms exploit TMDs in FET configurations for point-of-care diagnostics, virus detection, and even as electrochemical sensors for medical analytes (see, for example, Refs. [9,11]). Multiple experimental and theoretical works were summarized in several reviews (see, for example, [12,13,14]). TMDs are used for gas adsorption, pollutant removal, wastewater treatment, and CO2 valorization, capitalizing on their surface activity and tunable chemistry [10,15]. Usually, the surface of TMS is considered similar to the bulk layers of these materials. However, many works have reported oxide-like layers on the surface of TMS, such as WSe2 [16], ZrSeS [17], SnSe2 [18], NiTe2 [19], and PdTe2 [20]. Recent observations of TMDs oxidation are summarized in several review papers [21,22,23].
In contrast to experimental works, the theoretical description of these oxide-like layers on TMD surfaces is typically performed as a supplementary study to the experiment [19,20,24,25,26,27]. Theoretical works on the sensing properties of TMS usually consider only the pristine surface of the materials. Thus, systematic studies of the chemical stability of TMS and the effect of forming an oxide layer on sensing properties are needed.
We chose three groups of representative candidates to study the properties of TMS as comprehensively as possible. The first group is Mo-based systems (MoS2, MoSe2, MoTe2). These systems have been chosen as the most extensively studied in the last two decades. The next group of systems is Pt-based TMS (PtS2, PtSe2, PtTe2). Platinum has been selected as the most studied metal in noble metal-based TMS. The third group is V-based systems (VS2, VSe2, VTe2). Vanadium was chosen due to the unique TMS 3d1 configuration of the metal center, as well as its unusual magnetic and structural properties [28,29]. Experiments demonstrate the possibility of synthesizing both 1T and 2H structural phases (see Figure 1) for a wide range of TMDs [1,2]. In our studies, we simulated both structural phases for all nine considered compounds.
For all the discussed groups of materials, the experiments report some level of surface oxidation. In the case of MoX2, the Mo–O features are noted for MoS2 [30,31,32], MoSe2 [33,34], and MoTe2 [34,35]. On the contrary, some works reported the absence of oxidation for MoSe2 [36] and MoTe2 [37]. The work of Z. Wu et al. also reports only minuscule oxidation of molybdenum in MoSe2 [33]. Some work reports the oxidation of MoTe2 after treatment with a potent oxidative agent, such as ozone [38,39]. For VX2 systems, the picture is more complex: multiple works have reported some oxidation of the VS2 surface [40,41,42], stability of VS2 [43], VSe2 at ambient conditions [24,43,44], and the oxidation after annealing at 400 °C [45]; other works report trace-level oxidation of VTe2 [46,47]. In the case of the PtX2 family, the evidence of oxidation is unclear, as only a few works have reported trace-level oxidation [48,49,50], while a larger number of works have reported no oxidation at all [49,51,52,53]. Since the oxidation of some stable compounds can be associated with defect-rich areas [24], a systematic study of the oxidation of entire families is needed to reveal the causes of surface stability and instability.
In our work, we simulated physical adsorption and decomposition, resulting in the formation of a dioxide layer on the surface. To estimate the effect of the surface morphology and chemical composition on chemical properties, we simulated competitive adsorption of NO2 from the air. The choice of this analyte is based on voluminous experimental data regarding NO2 sensing by TMDs [12,13,14].

2. Computational Method and Construction of the Models

The atomic structure and energetics of various configurations were studied using DFT with the QUANTUM-ESPRESSO code [54] and the GGA-PBE [55] functional, taking into account van der Waals forces corrections [56]. For all calculations, we used ultrasoft pseudopotentials [57]. The values of energy cutoffs of 35 Ry and 400 Ry for the plane-wave expansion of the wave functions and the charge density, respectively. The enthalpy of a reaction is defined as the difference in the total energies of the products and the reactants, calculated. Thus, negative enthalpy corresponds with exothermic reactions.
The standard formula calculated physisorption enthalpies:
ΔHphys = [Ehost + mol − (Ehost + Emol)]
where Ehost is the total energy of a pristine surface, and Emol is the energy of the single molecules of the selected species in the empty box. The energy of the oxygen decomposition is the difference between the total energies of supercells with decomposed and physically adsorbed oxygen molecules. For the case of physisorption, we also evaluated the differential Gibbs free energy by the formula
ΔG = ΔH − TΔS
where T is the temperature, and ΔS is the change in entropy of the adsorbed molecule, which was estimated considering the gas→liquid transition by the standard formula
ΔS = ΔHvap/Tvap
where ΔHvap and Tvap are the measured enthalpy and temperature of vaporization, based on the handbooks [58].
Langmuir constant is defined as the Boltzmann probability of the adsorption on the active site, calculated using the standard formula
Kn = e−ΔG/kBT
Saturation of active sites by analytes (A) with concentration CA was calculated using the following formula:
qA = (KACA)/(1 + KACA + KO2CO2).
The above formulas are developed for constant pressure (P) and volume (V). In the case of changing P and V, instead of ΔG, energy is calculated by the formula
∆E = ∆G + ∆(PV)
At the first step of the modeling, we simulated the bulk phase of the materials. In these calculations, both atomic positions and lattice parameters were optimized. This atomic structures were used to construct a four-layer slab. Next, the atomic positions were optimized to simulate the surface. The lattice parameters were fixed to simulate the effect of subsurface bulk area. Optimized structures were multiplied in the x-y plane to construct the 3 × 3 slab used for simulating physical adsorption (Figure 1). To take into account possible in-plane irregularities, further optimization of atomic positions in this slab has been performed before the simulation of physical adsorption. The oxidized AO2 surface layer was simulated by substituting S, Se, or Te for oxygen in the surface layer, with the atomic positions optimized and the lattice parameters fixed.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Evaluation of the Surface Stability

The first step of our simulations involves comparing the total energies of 1T and 2H configurations in surface and subsurface areas before oxidation. Since our model supercells contain two surface and two subsurface layers, the energy difference between the total energies of the supercells in different configurations characterizes the favorability of one configuration over the other. Results of the calculations are summarized in Table 1. Negative values correspond to the favorability of the 1T configuration, and positive ones to the preferability of the 2H configuration. These results demonstrate that for all anions, the MoX2 2H configuration is significantly more stable than the 1T configuration. Similarly, for PtX2, the 1T configuration is more stable than the 2H configuration. On the contrary, in VX2 systems, a significant preference for one of the configurations (1T) was observed only for VTe2. For VS2 and VSe2, the energy differences between the two configurations in the surface parts are tiny in comparison to other studied systems. Thus, the spontaneous formation of a surface configuration that differs from the bulk area’s configuration can be observed in these systems. Figure 2a–c demonstrate that the charge transfer between the surface layer and the subsurface layers does not correlate with the favorability of 2H configurations: the favorability of the 2H configuration gradually decreases from MoS2 to MoTe2; on the contrary, charge transfer between surface and subsurface layers in MoSe2 is dramatically smaller than in the two other systems. Thus, we can conclude that the chemical bonds inside the layers primarily define the favorability of the configuration.
The next step in our studies is to investigate the physical adsorption and decomposition of oxygen on the pristine surfaces of selected TMDs. The physical adsorption of the oxygen molecules is energetically favorable on VX2 and MoX2 surfaces. On the contrary, O2 adsorption is relatively stable only on the 1T-PtS2 and 2H-PtTe2 surfaces. Since the 2H phase of PtTe2 is significantly less favorable than X, the adsorption of O2 on real PtTe2 can also be ruled out. Adsorption on other Pt-based systems is an endothermic process; these results are in agreement with experimentally observed stability of PtSe2 and PtTe2 at ambient conditions [51,52,53].
The decomposition of the physically adsorbed oxygen molecule (see Figure 1c) is the next step in forming the oxide layer. Calculated energies for this process demonstrate its favorability over several considered systems, with some notable exceptions. The first exception is both phases of VSe2 and 1T-VTe2 (the most stable phase, as shown in Table 1). These results are in agreement with experimentally observed stability of these compounds at ambient conditions [24,44,45,46]. On the contrary, the adsorption and decomposition of the oxygen molecule on both phases of VS2 are exothermic processes, which is in agreement with experimental results [40,41]. A similar agreement between theory and experiment is observed for the oxidation of MoS2 [30,31,32] and the stability of MoSe2 [33,38]. In the case of MoTe2 calculations, it demonstrates the favorability of oxygen adsorption and decomposition. Experiments also report oxidation of both phases at ambient conditions [34,35]. Decomposition of oxygen molecules on all Pt-based dichalcogenides is favorable. However, the experimentally detected stability of Pt-based TMDs can be attributed to the instability of oxygen molecule physical adsorption. Thus, the comparison of experimental and theoretical results for the studied systems demonstrates the feasibility of DFT-based modeling for predicting the surface stability of TMDs.
Note that the discussion in the previous paragraph considered only defectless surfaces of modeled systems. The presence of the anion vacancies significantly increases the favorability of oxygen adsorption and decomposition, as was shown for VSe2 [24]. Annealing and ozonation also lead to the oxidation of the surface layers [39,40,47]. Hence, an oxidized layer can form even on the surfaces of TMDs, which is stable under ambient conditions. Therefore, the properties of AX2/AO2 interfaces should be studied for all systems under consideration. The formation of these AO2 surface layers results in visible changes in the favorability of configurations (see Table 1). In VS2, oxidation of the surface leads to a decrease in the favorability of the 2H configuration. However, the energy difference between the two configurations is negligible (1.2 kJ unit−1); therefore, both structural phases or their mix can be discussed as probable. In contrast to VS2, for VSe2 and VTe2, oxidation of the surface leads to the stabilisation of the most preferable 1T phase. A similar effect was also observed for PtS2. On the contrary, in MoX2, PtSe2, and PtTe2, oxidation of the surface leads to a decrease in the favorability of the ground state phase. The formation of an oxidized layer on the surface also leads to a significant redistribution of charge density even in deep subsurface layers (Figure 2a–c vs. Figure 2d–f). Note that in all cases shown in Figure 2d–f, there is a decrease in electron density in the subsurface area and an increase in electron density in the surface AO2 layer. In the next section, we demonstrate how these changes affect the sensing properties of TMDs.

3.2. Effect of Oxidation on Sensing Properties

First, we calculated the enthalpies of NO2 adsorption on pure AX2 substrates. Since the values of the entropies calculated by Equation (3) for O2 and NO2 are different (0.038 kJ mol−1 K−1 vs. 0.111 kJ mol−1 K−1, the contributions from the entropy should also be taken into account. However, the numbers reported in Table 2 show that in some cases, the adsorption of O2 is more favorable than that of NO2 (for example, on the 1T-MoS2 or 2H-VTe2 surfaces). In some cases, the values of the enthalpies are very close. Thus, the evaluation of the substrate’s feasibility for gas sensing cannot be determined by calculating only the analyte’s enthalpy. The competition with oxygen must also be considered by comparing the adsorption energies. For this purpose, the saturation of active sites by analyte molecules can be calculated using Equation (5). To illustrate the application of this equation, we selected two realistic materials: 2H-MoS2 and 2H-MoTe2. Adsorption of nitrogen dioxide on the pristine surface of 2H-MoS2 is about three times more favorable than oxygen (−180.5 kJ mol−1 vs. −64.3 kJ mol−1). The firm sticking of the NO2 molecule with the surface corresponds with some doping of the substrate (Figure 3a), which is essential for sensing applications. As a result, even at the most minor concentration (3 ppm), all active sites are saturated for temperatures below 500 °C. A higher concentration of NO2 (30 ppm) corresponds with total saturation of active sites for temperatures below 650 °C (see Figure 3c). This result is in agreement with experimentally reported excellent sensing properties of MoS2 at room temperature [59]. Note that the discussed temperatures are significantly above the temperature of MoS2 degradation (200 °C) [60]. On the contrary, the adsorption of nitrogen dioxide on 2H-MoTe2 is only insignificantly favorable than oxygen (−70.5 kJ mol−1 vs. −55.6 kJ mol−1). One of the cases of this difference with MoS2 case is the energy cost for the charge redistribution in the entire MoTe2 layer (see Figure 3b). Consequently, the saturation of active sites is minimal (below 10%) even at room temperature and a relatively high concentration (see Figure 3d). This result is in agreement with experimentally observed significant improvement of MoTe2-based NO2 sensors after removal of the oxygen molecules from the surface [61].
The oxidation of the surface layer typically increases by the magnitudes of the adsorption enthalpies for both molecules (see the numbers in parentheses in Table 2). In some cases (for example, 1T-MoSe2), oxidation changes the adsorption of NO2 from unfavorable (+6.5 kJ mol−1) to highly favorable (−291.6 kJ mol−1). The changes in adsorption energies obviously should affect sensing properties. To illustrate this, we will use 2H-MoS2 and 2H-MoTe2 substrates discussed in the previous paragraph. The oxidation of 2H-MoS2 decreases the difference between adsorption enthalpies of O2 and NO2 (−73.9 kJ mol−1 vs. −100.6 kJ mol−1). This decrease in the energy difference significantly affects the competition between oxygen and nitrogen dioxide for active sites. A high level of saturation (about 90%) can be achieved only for a relatively high concentration of NO2 (100 ppm, see Figure 3c). Note that in the case of the 2H-MoSe2, the surface oxidation makes adsorption of oxygen more favorable than nitrogen dioxide (−148.4 kJ mol−1 vs. −100.5 kJ mol−1). Thus, the outstanding sensing properties of MoSe2 [62] are undoubtedly associated with its non-oxidized surface, as described both experimentally and theoretically.
In the case of 2H-MoTe2, the formation of a surface layer leads to an increase in the difference in adsorption enthalpies of oxygen and nitrogen dioxide by four times (−36.9 kJ mol−1 vs. −176.1 kJ mol−1). The significant favorability of NO2 adsorption is associated with the total saturation of active sites up to 700 °C, even for very low concentrations (3 ppm, see Figure 3d). Another example of the dramatic effect of the surface oxidation is on 1T-PtS2 and 1T-PtSe2. For PtS2, the surface oxidation is very favorable. For the second, it is metastable but can be realized by annealing in the air (see Table 2). Experimental works also report outstanding properties of PtS2 [14,63] and PtSe2 [64,65]. For PtSe2, experiments demonstrate stability of the surface at room temperature; however, the sensing performance at 600 °C [64] can be clearly associated with the formation of an oxide layer, as it was shown in the recent work about high-temperature sensing of GaS [66]. Thus, the effect of the oxidized layer on the adsorption properties can sometimes be adverse but sometimes beneficial, which was observed experimentally for several TMD-based systems [67,68].

4. Conclusions

This comprehensive study systematically elucidates the interplay between surface oxidation, structural phase stability, and gas sensing performance in transition metal dichalcogenides of various compositions and phases. By combining density functional theory with energetic evaluations of oxygen adsorption, decomposition, and competitive adsorption scenarios, the work establishes fundamental criteria governing surface stability and chemisorption processes across Mo-, Pt-, and V-based dichalcogenides. For certain materials, primarily Pt-based systems, chemical stability arises from the instability of oxygen’s physical adsorption. In contrast, other compounds such as VSe2 and MoSe2 exhibit stability due to the high energy barrier associated with oxygen decomposition. Both mechanisms must be accounted for when predicting oxidation behavior and guiding surface engineering strategies.
Our calculations reveal that oxidation stabilizes the 1T phases of VSe2, VTe2, and PtS2. In contrast, the formation of an oxide layer reduces the stability of 2H phases in VS2, all Mo-based systems and the 1T phases of PtSe2 and PtTe2. Given that different transition metal dichalcogenide phases possess distinct electronic structures, such oxidation-induced phase transitions may induce metal-to-semiconductor transformations, impacting material functionality.
The findings highlight that neither a large negative adsorption energy nor pristine surface assumptions are sufficient to predict superior sensor performance. Using NO2 adsorption on 2H-MoS2 and 2H-MoTe2 as case studies, we show that complete saturation of surface active sites at low analyte concentrations (3 ppm) and elevated temperatures correlates with adsorption energies significantly exceeding those for oxygen physical adsorption. Notably, oxidation can either drastically impair sensing performance, as observed for 2H-MoS2, or markedly enhance it, as in 2H-MoTe2, where AO2 surface formation transforms a moderate sensor into a highly effective one.
Ultimately, this work advocates for a paradigm shift in the modeling and design of transition metal dichalcogenide materials for gas sensing, from a focus on pristine surfaces to a nuanced consideration of surface oxidation, phase stabilization, and dynamic competitive adsorption. Incorporating these complex interfacial effects will be essential in guiding the rational development of next-generation 2D material-based sensors and devices. Future research that leverages machine learning or other advanced analytical methods may further unravel the subtle chemical and structural determinants governing the stability and functionality of transition metal dichalcogenides surfaces in operational environments.

Author Contributions

Investigation, A.S. and D.W.B.; Writing—original draft, D.W.B.; Writing—review & editing, A.S.S. and N.A.C.; Visualization, D.W.B.; Funding acquisition, A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Grant No. AP19178659 “Study of the lattice dynamics of antimony selenide by vibrational spectroscopy” and BR21881954 “Development of technologies for the synthesis of nanostructured materials for efficient photocatalytic electrodes, photo- and gas-sensors”).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Coatings 15 01108 g001
Figure 1. Top and side views of the oxygen molecule physically adsorbed on the 1T (a) and 2H (b) configuration of VSe2. Panel (c) depicts the optimized atomic structure of the oxygen molecule decomposition on the 1T surface of VSe2.
Figure 1. Top and side views of the oxygen molecule physically adsorbed on the 1T (a) and 2H (b) configuration of VSe2. Panel (c) depicts the optimized atomic structure of the oxygen molecule decomposition on the 1T surface of VSe2.
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Figure 2. The electron density differences for 2H configurations of MoS2 (a), MoSe2 (b), MoTe2 (c), and MoS2/MoO2 (d), MoSe2/MoO2 (e), MoTe2/MoO2 (f). Yellow “clouds” correspond with increased electron density and cyan “clouds” with decreased. The isosurface level is equal to 0.5 × 10−4 e− Å−3.
Figure 2. The electron density differences for 2H configurations of MoS2 (a), MoSe2 (b), MoTe2 (c), and MoS2/MoO2 (d), MoSe2/MoO2 (e), MoTe2/MoO2 (f). Yellow “clouds” correspond with increased electron density and cyan “clouds” with decreased. The isosurface level is equal to 0.5 × 10−4 e− Å−3.
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Figure 3. The electron density differences after adsorption of NO2 on pristine surfaces of 2H-MoS2 (a), 2H-MoTe2 (b). The colorscale is the same as in Figure 2. Yellow “clouds” correspond with increased electron density and cyan “clouds” with decreased. The isosurface level is equal to 3 × 10−4 e− Å−3. Panels (c,d) depict saturation of active sites on oxidized and non-oxidized substrates as a function of temperature for different concentrations of NO2 in an oxygen atmosphere.
Figure 3. The electron density differences after adsorption of NO2 on pristine surfaces of 2H-MoS2 (a), 2H-MoTe2 (b). The colorscale is the same as in Figure 2. Yellow “clouds” correspond with increased electron density and cyan “clouds” with decreased. The isosurface level is equal to 3 × 10−4 e− Å−3. Panels (c,d) depict saturation of active sites on oxidized and non-oxidized substrates as a function of temperature for different concentrations of NO2 in an oxygen atmosphere.
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Table 1. The difference per formula unit between 1T and 2H configurations before (AX2) and after (AX2/AO2) formation of the oxidized layer. Negative values correspond to the favorability of the 1T configuration, and positive ones to the preferability of the 2H configuration.
Table 1. The difference per formula unit between 1T and 2H configurations before (AX2) and after (AX2/AO2) formation of the oxidized layer. Negative values correspond to the favorability of the 1T configuration, and positive ones to the preferability of the 2H configuration.
AXE(1T)−E(2H), kJ unit−1
AB2AB2/AO2
VS
Se
Te		+2.2
−2.5
−68.2		+1.2
−51.2
−166.4
MoS
Se
Te		+76.2
+51.1
+25.4		+54.5
+32.5
+9.8
PtS
Se
Te		−6.1
−144.5
−108.2		−118.7
−70.2
−36.4
Table 2. Enthalpies (dHads) of analytes on AB2 and AX2/AO2 (in parentheses) surfaces and energy of decomposition of the oxygen molecule on the pristine surface (dEdec).
Table 2. Enthalpies (dHads) of analytes on AB2 and AX2/AO2 (in parentheses) surfaces and energy of decomposition of the oxygen molecule on the pristine surface (dEdec).
AXConfigurationdH(O2)adsdH(NO2)adsdE(O2)dec
VS1T
2H		−97.0 (−98.5)
−109.6 (−115.3)		−4.7 (−46.9)
−44.1 (−139.6)		−103.2
−140.3
Se1T
2H		−51.4 (−94.1)
−37.8 (−350.1)		−66.3 (−380.6)
−39.5 (−27.9)		+128.9
+99.3
Te1T
2H		−109.8 (−96.3)
−108.6 (−83.1)		−135.8 (−243.8)
−72.0 (−22.5)		+6.5
−177.0
MoS1T
2H		−128.1 (−38.5)
−64.3 (−73.9)		−82.2 (−25.6)
−180.5 (−100.6)		−209.0
+42.0
Se1T
2H		−65.7 (−84.9)
−127.4 (−148.4)		+6.5 (−291.6)
−195.2 (−100.5)		+11.3
+189.4
Te1T
2H		−39.7 (−42.2)
−55.6 (−36.9)		−69.8 (−81.1)
−70.5 (−176.1)		−10.5
−52.7
PtS1T
2H		−8.6 (+24.8)
+13.60 (−3.8)		+7.1 (−79.3)
+27.5 (−49.7)		−152.9
−171.6
Se1T
2H		+5.15 (−21.2)
+35.2 (−17.1)		−3.65 (−343.5)
−75.1 (−70.4)		+5.8
−369.7
Te1T
2H		+55.2 (+73.3)
−9.5 (−11.3)		−40.3 (−129.3)
−51.0 (−121.3)		−28.5
−251.8
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Shongalova, A.; Boukhvalov, D.W.; Serikkanov, A.S.; Chuchvaga, N.A. A Comprehensive Study of Oxide Skin Formation on the Surface of Dichalcogenides and Its Effect on Sensing Properties. Coatings 2025, 15, 1108. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15091108

AMA Style

Shongalova A, Boukhvalov DW, Serikkanov AS, Chuchvaga NA. A Comprehensive Study of Oxide Skin Formation on the Surface of Dichalcogenides and Its Effect on Sensing Properties. Coatings. 2025; 15(9):1108. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15091108

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shongalova, Aigul, Danil W. Boukhvalov, Abay S. Serikkanov, and Nikolay A. Chuchvaga. 2025. "A Comprehensive Study of Oxide Skin Formation on the Surface of Dichalcogenides and Its Effect on Sensing Properties" Coatings 15, no. 9: 1108. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15091108

APA Style

Shongalova, A., Boukhvalov, D. W., Serikkanov, A. S., & Chuchvaga, N. A. (2025). A Comprehensive Study of Oxide Skin Formation on the Surface of Dichalcogenides and Its Effect on Sensing Properties. Coatings, 15(9), 1108. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15091108

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