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Article

Coated High-Performance Paper from Bacterial Cellulose Residue and Eucalyptus Pulp: Enhanced Mechanical Strength, Water Resistance, and Air Barrier Properties

by
Preeyanuch Srichola
1,2,
Kunat Kongsin
1,2,
Thanyachol Apipatpapha
1,
Jirachaya Boonyarit
1,
Peeraya Ounu
1 and
Rungsima Chollakup
1,*
1
Kasetsart Agricultural and Agro-Industrial Product Improvement Institute (KAPI), Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
2
Cellulose for Future Materials and Technologies Special Research Unit, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2025, 15(6), 720; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15060720
Submission received: 25 April 2025 / Revised: 27 May 2025 / Accepted: 2 June 2025 / Published: 16 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Coatings: Materials, Methods, and Applications)
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Abstract

:
Cellulose-based paper products derived from agro-industrial waste have attracted considerable interest due to their potential in sustainable material development. In this study, bacterial cellulose (BC) residue from the food and beverage industry was employed as a reinforcing agent to fabricate high-performance paper composites by blending with eucalyptus pulp (EP) at various ratios and basis weights. These papers were coated with a cationic modified starch solution (MS) using a rod coater, followed by hot pressing. Mechanical strengths (TAPPI Standard), water resistance (Cobb test and water contact angle), and air permeability (ASTM D737) were evaluated to assess material performance. The results showed that incorporating 50 wt% BC produced paper with outstanding mechanical performance, characterized by a high tensile index and excellent tear resistance. The application of the MS coating significantly boosted water resistance and air barrier performance, underscoring the effectiveness of this approach in creating high-performance paper materials. The resulting coated composites demonstrated excellent mechanical strength and barrier properties, positioning them as promising candidates for filtration applications such as personal protective face mask membranes.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Social awareness of environmental challenges has surged in recent years, prompting extensive research into the use of renewable materials and plant residues to develop eco-friendly industrial products. Cellulose, the most abundant biopolymer in nature and a major component of plant biomass, plays a central role in this effort. It has been widely utilized in the production of pulp and paper, textiles, food additives, and pharmaceutical products due to its renewable nature and versatile properties [1,2,3].
Bacterial cellulose (BC), a biopolymer synthesized extracellularly by Komagataeibacter xylinus (formerly Gluconobacter xylinus), offers several distinct advantages over plant-based cellulose. These include its high purity, absence of lignin and pectin, high crystallinity, and superior degree of polymerization [4,5]. Similar to plant-based cellulose, BC has been applied in various fields, including food, cosmetics, textiles, and biomedicine [6]. BC has demonstrated promising properties as a sustainable raw material for the production of paper-based products, serving as a potential replacement for pulp derived from softwood or hardwood resources [7]. Previous studies have shown that BC can act as a reinforcing agent in paper made from various pulps such as softwood, sugarcane bagasse, bamboo, wheat straw, eucalyptus, and recycled fiber pulp [7,8,9,10,11]. BC-based paper composites exhibit excellent mechanical strength along with enhanced water and air barrier properties [1,7].
Recent research has demonstrated innovative applications of BC in the development of multifunctional materials. For instance, Zhao et al. [12] assembled bacterial nanocellulose into super-strong, humidity-responsive macrofibers. These macrofibers display outstanding mechanical strength, high flexibility, and a unique responsiveness to humidity changes, making them suitable for various industrial and biomedical applications. The study highlights the potential to assemble BC into larger structures without compromising its intrinsic properties. Potential applications include advanced textiles, humidity sensors, and structural reinforcements in lightweight materials. This advancement underscores the versatility of BC, not only as a standalone material but also as a component in multifunctional systems designed to meet the complex demands of modern material science [4,5,6].
The nanofibrous structure of BC has also gained attention in air filtration systems, particularly in face masks and air filters. BC-based air filters functionalized with silver nanowires have shown efficient particulate matter removal and antibacterial activity [13], while nanocellulose-based membranes have emerged as promising materials for high-performance air filtration due to their sustainability and superior properties [14]. Additionally, biodegradable face masks made from BC have been proposed as eco-friendly alternatives to conventional masks, addressing both public health and environmental concerns [15].
To further improve the properties of BC-based composites, the integration of antibacterial agents derived from biomass has been explored. Jonsirivilai et al. [16] reported the incorporation of plant-derived antimicrobial agents into BC, resulting in multifunctional materials with excellent antimicrobial efficacy. This approach enhances the potential of BC-based materials for use in air filtration and biomedical applications by providing added protection against bioaerosols and microbial contamination.
Recently, alternative mask materials have also been investigated, including the use of fungal mycelium as self-growing filaments combined with polypropylene layers. This combination has shown potential to improve the filtration efficiency and sustainability of conventional mask designs [17].
Eucalyptus pulp (EP), known for its short fibers, excellent printability, and good blending properties, has been widely used in the production of commercial paper. Composite papers made by blending BC with EP have demonstrated enhanced mechanical strength and air barrier properties [7,10]. The combination of BC and EP supports circular economy principles by utilizing renewable resources and byproducts from the food and beverage industry, thereby reducing environmental impact.
To further enhance paper functionality, surface coatings with biodegradable polymers such as modified starch (MS) have gained prominence. Modified starch improves paper strength, water resistance, and surface wettability, making it suitable for applications ranging from packaging to air filtration [18,19,20,21].
Despite recent advancements, research gaps remain in optimizing BC- and EP-based composites for specific applications. Many existing studies lack comprehensive evaluations of key performance parameters, such as air permeability, mechanical strength, and water resistance under practical conditions.
This study focuses on the development of high-performance composite paper by blending BC residue with commercial EP. Composite papers were prepared with varying BC content and basis weight and were further enhanced by coating with cationic modified starch. These papers were evaluated for their physical and mechanical properties, water absorption, surface wettability, and air permeability.
Additionally, this research explores the novel potential of these composite papers as air filter membranes for face masks, assessed using the ASTM D737 standard. By addressing existing gaps, this study contributes to sustainable material development by proposing innovative approaches for utilizing BC residues and EP to produce biodegradable, high-performance papers offering solutions to environmental challenges and enhancing material functionality for filtration and protective applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

BC residues from beverage production were kindly provided by Taveephol Product Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand. Commercial bleached eucalyptus pulp (EP) was obtained from Phoenix Pulp & Paper Public Co., Ltd., SCG Packaging Group, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Cationic modified starch (MS) was supplied by SMS Corporation Co., Ltd., Pathum Thani, Thailand. Sodium hydroxide (analytical reagent grade) was purchased from Fisher Chemical, Asse, Belgium.

2.2. Preparation of Bacterial Cellulose (BC) and Eucalyptus Pulp (EP)

Alkaline pretreatment of BC was performed using 2% (w/v) sodium hydroxide at 95 °C for 2 h, with a BC-to-solution ratio of 1:1000 (w/v). The alkali-treated bacterial cellulose was washed several times with tap water until the pH reached neutral. To prepare the EP, commercial bleached eucalyptus pulp was cut into small pieces and soaked in tap water for at least 18 h. The softened EP was then mechanically disintegrated in tap water using a high-consistency disintegrator (Kumagai Riki Kogyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) for 10 min. Both BC and EP were stored at 4 °C until further use.

2.3. Preparation of Paper from Bacterial Cellulose (BC) and Eucalyptus Pulp (EP)

Alkaline-treated BC and EP were mixed and mechanically disintegrated in 2.5 L of tap water using a high-consistency disintegrator for 10 min. A square paper sheet (25 × 25 cm2) was formed via vacuum filtration using a paper-forming machine (Kumagai Riki Kogyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) with a 0.2 mm wire screen. Each paper was produced at basis weights of 50 and 80 g/m2 with varying BC contents of 0, 5, 10, 50, and 100 wt%, based on the total fiber dry weight. A schematic of the manufacturing process is presented in Figure 1. The formed papers were first air-dried at room temperature for 24 h, then further dried using a rotary drum dryer (DR-200, Kumagai Riki Kogyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Prior to characterization, the papers were equilibrated at 25 °C and 50% relative humidity (RH) for 4–6 h.

2.4. Surface Paper Coating of Cationic Modified Starch

A cationic modified starch (MS) solution was prepared by dissolving MS in distilled water (10% w/v) at 90 °C for 30 min under continuous stirring. The solution was then cooled to 50 °C and maintained at that temperature until use. An MS (5 mL) was applied to the upper surface of each paper using a rod coater of number 10 (wet film thickness ~24 µm) at a coating speed of 5 cm/s. After application, the papers were air-dried at ambient conditions for 30 min and then hot-pressed at 105 °C for 5 min to ensure uniform adhesion. The coated paper was air-dried at room temperature and then hot-pressed at 105 °C for 5 min. Before testing, the paper was equilibrated under the same conditions as the uncoated paper.

2.5. Physical Characterization

2.5.1. Basis Weight and Thickness

The basis weight of both uncoated and MS-coated papers was determined by measuring the weight of a specified paper area and reported in g/m2. Paper thickness was measured using a digital thickness gauge (Mitutoyo, ID-C112XBS, Kawasaki, Japan) at random locations on each sample.

2.5.2. Coating Weight

Coating weight (g/m2) was obtained by subtracting the weight of a defined area of MS-coated paper from the weight of the same area of uncoated paper.

2.6. Mechanical Characterization

2.6.1. Tensile Index

The tensile index of the paper samples was evaluated in accordance with TAPPI T 494 om-22 [22]. Paper samples were cut into rectangular strips (15 mm × 150 mm). Tensile testing was performed using a Schopper tensile tester (Kumagai Riki Kogyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) at a strain rate of 25 ± 5 mm/min with a clamp distance of 100 mm. The breaking force (Fb) was recorded and used to calculate the tensile index (N·m/g) according to Equation (1), as specified in TAPPI T 494 om-22 [22]. A pre-factor of 653.8 kgf/15 mm was used to convert the value to N/m for the tensile index calculation.
Tensile index = [653.8 × Fb]/basis weight

2.6.2. Tear Index

Tearing resistance of the paper samples was analyzed using an Elmendorf tearing tester (Kumagai Riki Kogyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) following TAPPI T 414 om-21 (Elmendorf method) [22]. Test specimens were prepared with dimensions of 6.3 cm × 10 cm. The tear resistance force (Ft) was recorded, and the tear index (mN·m2/g) was calculated according to Equation (2). A pre-factor of 9.807 kg/mm was used to convert the value to kN/m for the tear index calculation.
Tear index = [9.807 × Ft]/basis weight

2.7. Surface Morphology

The surface morphology of the paper samples was observed using a stereo microscope (LEICA, EZ4W, Wetzlar, Germany) at 35× magnification. For a more detailed examination, a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (FEI Quanta 450, Hillsboro, OR, USA) was used to further illustrate the surface morphology of the paper samples. Each sample was sputter-coated with gold and observed at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV.

2.8. Water Absorption Testing

The Cobb test was used to measure the water absorption of the paper samples in accordance with TAPPI T 441 om-09 [23], using a Cobb sizing tester (Kumagai Riki Kogyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). The amount of water absorbed by the samples within 60 s was expressed in g/m2.

2.9. Contact Angle Measurement

The water contact angle (WCA) of the samples was measured using a contact angle goniometer (Dataphysics OCA 20, Filderstadt, Germany) operated with SCA 20 software. The samples were cut into rectangles (1 × 5 cm), and a 3 μL water droplet was deposited on the front surface using a microsyringe. Contact angle measurements were taken exactly 2 s after the initial contact between the water droplet and the paper surface to minimize variability from rapid absorption.

2.10. Air Permeability

The air permeability of the paper was investigated using an air permeability tester (M021A, SDL ATLAS, Rock Hill, SC, USA) at 125 Pa, following the standard method ASTM D737 (ASTM, 2012). A commercial meltblown filter made of non-woven polypropylene with a basis weight of 90 g/m2 was used for comparison with the paper filters.

2.11. Statistical Analysis

Differences in experimental data between treatment groups were statistically assessed using SPSS software (version 17.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), with a significance level of p ≤ 0.05, using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

3. Results

3.1. Physico-Mechanical Properties

The physico-mechanical properties of uncoated and MS-coated papers with varying basis weights are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2. It was observed that paper sheets containing high bacterial cellulose (BC) content specifically 50 and 100 wt% could not be fabricated at a high basis weight of 80 g/m2. This limitation is attributed to the fine, dense network structure of BC, which forms strong inter-fibrous bonds. These tight bonds hinder effective water drainage during sheet formation, making it extremely difficult to produce thicker (heavier) paper sheets. As a result, papers with 50 and 100 wt% BC were only successfully produced at a lower basis weight of 50 g/m2. However, even at this lower weight, the formation process was considerably more demanding. It required a significantly extended vacuum time of 60–75 min using a paper-forming machine, due to the reduced permeability and slow drainage of the BC-rich slurry. Due to production limitations, only paper sheets with lower bacterial cellulose (BC) contents—specifically 5 wt% and 10 wt% BC (corresponding to 95 wt% and 90 wt% EP, respectively)—could be produced at a higher basis weight of 80 g/m2. These low-BC-content sheets were therefore selected to evaluate the effect of modified starch (MS) coating on their physico-mechanical properties under conditions more representative of industrial paper-making, where higher basis weights enable more practical sheet formation.
The basis weight of each uncoated paper showed no significant differences across different BC contents (p > 0.05), while the basis weight of coated papers varied due to the affinity between BC and MS, as well as the topography and porosity of the paper surface [24]. Paper thickness decreased with increasing BC content, attributed to the fine, dense network of BC resulting in lower porosity, as shown in Table 3. The MS coating slightly increased paper thickness, suggesting that MS penetrated the fiber network of the coated paper, as visualized by SEM microscopy in the next section.
The mechanical properties of uncoated and MS-coated papers with varying BC contents (0, 5, 10, 50, and 100 wt% based on total fiber dry weight) and basis weights (50 and 80 g/m2) are presented in Table 1 and Table 2. The results showed that increasing BC content enhanced the mechanical properties (tensile and tear indices) of both uncoated and MS-coated papers. The mechanical properties of paper are influenced by fiber characteristics such as fiber length, diameter, and lumen width, as well as inter-fiber bonding [25,26]. The unique microstructure of BC, consisting of a long cellulose microfibril network, contributes to its high crystallinity and excellent mechanical strength [9].
In addition, MS coating improved the tensile and tear indices of the paper at both basis weights. Starch is a hydrophilic polymer that disperses in water and attaches to cellulose fibers through hydrogen bonding, thereby enhancing the mechanical properties of paper [9,18]. As the basis weight increased, the tear index became more pronounced, reaching a maximum at 50 wt% BC. A positive correlation between paper basis weight and tear index has been reported elsewhere [27]. However, paper made from 100 wt% BC exhibited a low tear index, comparable to that of 10 wt% BC. The tear index of paper corresponds to the number and strength of inter-fiber bonds, as well as the total number of fibers involved in the tearing process [8,28]. In rigid paper sheets, stress tends to concentrate in small areas—engaging only a few fibers—thereby consuming less energy during tearing [8,11]. Based on this explanation, the 100 wt% BC paper likely exhibited high rigidity. The large number of hydrogen bonds formed by self-aggregation resulted in a decrease in the tear index. BC self-aggregation negatively affects mechanical properties, including the tear index of composite papers [29,30]. Additionally, the tensile index decreased at higher basis weight (80 g/m2) because the tensile index is strongly dependent on the bonding ability of fibers within the network [10]. Bonding between BC and EP was reduced at higher basis weight (80 g/m2), leading to a lower tensile index.
The enhancement observed upon MS coating can be attributed to hydrogen bonding interactions between the hydroxyl groups of the starch molecules and the cellulose fibers. The cationic groups in MS improve compatibility and adhesion with negatively charged cellulose, forming a dense surface network that enhances tensile and tear strength while simultaneously reducing porosity and water uptake.

3.2. Surface Morphology

Stereo microscopy images illustrated the fibrous structure in the upper layers of both uncoated and MS-coated papers, as shown in Table 3. Paper produced with 0 wt% BC (100 wt% EP) displayed an entangled fibrous network with highly visible pores, whereas paper prepared with higher BC content (50 and 100 wt% BC) exhibited smaller fine fibers, reduced pore visibility, and greater transparency. Moreover, MS-coated paper had fewer pores on the coated upper layer compared to uncoated paper. To confirm the stereo microscopy results, selected paper samples were observed under a scanning electron microscope (SEM), with the resulting micrographs shown in Figure 2. Paper produced with 0 wt% BC (100 wt% EP) had an entangled fibrous network and relatively larger visible pores than papers produced with 50 and 100 wt% BC. The 100 wt% BC paper consisted of very thin and long BC fragments with very small visible pores. These results indicated that the MS coating on the fibrous surface embedded into the porous spaces of the paper surface (Figure 2A,B), which improved the paper’s mechanical properties, water resistance, and air permeability.

3.3. Water Absorption

The water absorption capacity of the paper samples is represented by the Cobb values (Table 1 and Table 2). Increasing the BC content to 10 wt% had a negligible effect on the water absorption property of the paper, while papers made from 50 and 100 wt% BC exhibited significantly lower Cobb values (indicating lower water absorption) (p ≤ 0.05). This decrease was due to the superior water resistance performance of BC compared to plant cellulose, such as EP. The highly porous structure of BC, which is composed of well-separated cellulose fibrils, has a high water-holding capacity. However, this property notably diminished after air drying, due to hydrogen bond formation among the cellulose fibrils [1,31]. Paper produced at 50 g/m2 exhibited lower Cobb values than paper produced at 80 g/m2, likely because of its lower fiber mass per unit volume. These results suggest that MS coating reduced the water absorption capacity of the paper.

3.4. Surface Wettability

The surface wettability of each paper at 50 g/m2 was assessed by measuring the water contact angle (WCA) (Figure 3). The water contact angle is a quantitative measure of surface wettability. A contact angle below 90° indicates a hydrophilic surface, while a contact angle above 90° indicates a hydrophobic surface [32,33]. Zero wt% BC paper exhibited rapid water absorption upon contact, which is indicative of high absorbency rather than surface wetting behavior. While the contact angle could not be reliably measured due to immediate penetration of the droplet, this response reflects the porous and hydrophilic nature of the paper rather than superhydrophilicity, which strictly refers to a very low contact angle on a non-absorbing surface. Incorporating BC fibers into the paper enhanced the hydrophobicity of the 50 and 100 wt% BC papers, with contact angles of 34.04 ± 5.51° and 36.73 ± 3.16°, respectively.
MS coating reduced the hydrophilicity of the paper surfaces, as demonstrated by an increase in the water contact angle (WCA). The MS coating created a superhydrophobic surface on paper with 0 wt% BC, with water droplets showing a WCA of 108.14 ± 12.11°. However, MS-coated paper made from 50 wt% BC exhibited slight hydrophilicity, with a WCA of 69.78 ± 2.89°, which was lower than that of MS-coated paper made from 0 wt% BC. The positively charged groups on MS bonded more strongly with the free hydroxyl groups on the paper surface [34], resulting in reduced hydrophilicity. The contact angle measurement results strongly correlated with the Cobb test values.

3.5. Air Permeability

Air permeability is one of the most important properties for applications in food packaging and air filter membranes. Previous studies have shown that BC composites are highly efficient in removing particulate matter (PM), indicating the potential of BC as a component in multifunctional air filters [13,35]. However, air permeability in face masks using BC composite paper has rarely been reported. In this study, air permeability was assessed according to the ASTM D737 standard to evaluate the potential of using composite papers as air filters for personal face masks. All papers met the ASTM D737 requirement, which specifies that the air permeability of textile fabrics must be lower than 50 cm3/cm2/s, as shown in Figure 4. Increasing BC content led to a decrease in air permeability for all basis weights. This phenomenon was attributed to small BC fragments filling the gaps between the EP fibers and increasing EP affinity, which resulted in decreased air permeability [1,7,34]. As expected, papers with a higher basis weight of 80 g/m2 showed lower air permeability than those with a lower basis weight of 50 g/m2. Furthermore, both MS-coated papers demonstrated lower air permeability because MS filled the porous spaces within the paper surface, reducing pore size and air permeability. The air permeability of commercial nonwoven polypropylene meltblown filters with a basis weight of 90 g/m2 typically ranges from 70 to 80 cm3/cm2/s, and glass fiber filters show even higher permeability values depending on structure [13,35]. In contrast, these MS-coated BC-EP papers exhibited permeability values below 50 cm3/cm2/s, meeting ASTM D737 standards for air filtration and offering a competitive biodegradable alternative.

4. Conclusions

This study demonstrated the potential of using bacterial cellulose (BC) waste from the food and beverage industry, combined with commercial eucalyptus pulp (EP), to produce biodegradable filter paper suitable for face masks. The BC was treated to ensure safety and blended with EP to create composite papers with improved mechanical strength, water resistance, and controlled air permeability. Further enhancement was achieved through coating with cationic modified starch. Results showed that papers containing BC, especially at 100 wt%, had superior properties compared to EP-only papers. However, blended papers offered a better balance between performance and ease of production. These BC-EP composites could serve as eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic materials like polypropylene in face masks. While the biodegradable nature of the material is an advantage, it also means a shorter lifespan than synthetic options. Future work should aim to improve durability and test these materials under real-world conditions to support potential large-scale use. Overall, this research contributes to the development of sustainable and high-performance filter membranes for personal protective equipment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.C. and P.S.; methodology, T.A.; software, K.K.; validation, P.O., T.A. and J.B.; formal analysis, P.S.; investigation, P.S.; resources, P.O.; data curation, T.A.; writing—original draft preparation, K.K.; writing—review and editing, R.C.; visualization, J.B.; supervision, R.C.; project administration, R.C.; funding acquisition, R.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute (KURDI), grant number (COVID-19)-1.64.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Taveephol Product Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand, for kindly provide the bacterial cellulose residue and SMS Corporation Co., Ltd., Pathum Thani, Thailand, for supplying cationic modified starch used in this experiment. The authors are grateful to the Cellulose for Future Materials and Technologies Special Research Unit, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand for publication support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Coatings 15 00720 g001
Figure 1. Manufacturing process of paper made of BC and EP.
Figure 1. Manufacturing process of paper made of BC and EP.
Coatings 15 00720 g001
Coatings 15 00720 g002
Figure 2. Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of uncoated and MS-coated papers (50 g/m2) with different BC contents: (A) 0, (B) 50 and (C) 100 wt%. BC = bacterial cellulose; EP = eucalyptus pulp; MS = cationic modified starch solution.
Figure 2. Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of uncoated and MS-coated papers (50 g/m2) with different BC contents: (A) 0, (B) 50 and (C) 100 wt%. BC = bacterial cellulose; EP = eucalyptus pulp; MS = cationic modified starch solution.
Coatings 15 00720 g002
Coatings 15 00720 g003
Figure 3. Water contact angles on uncoated and MS-coated papers produced with 0, 50, and 100 wt% of BC at a basis weight of 50 g/m2.
Figure 3. Water contact angles on uncoated and MS-coated papers produced with 0, 50, and 100 wt% of BC at a basis weight of 50 g/m2.
Coatings 15 00720 g003
Coatings 15 00720 g004
Figure 4. Air permeability of uncoated and MS-coated papers at different basis weight.
Figure 4. Air permeability of uncoated and MS-coated papers at different basis weight.
Coatings 15 00720 g004
Table 1. Physico-mechanical properties of the papers made of bacterial cellulose (BC) and eucalyptus pulp (EP) at a basis weight of 50 g/m2.
Table 1. Physico-mechanical properties of the papers made of bacterial cellulose (BC) and eucalyptus pulp (EP) at a basis weight of 50 g/m2.
BC
Content
(%)		Paper Sheet Forming Time
(min)		Thickness
(mm)		Basis Weight
(g/m2)		Coat Weight
(g/m2)		Tensile Index (N·m/g)Tear Index (mN·m2/g)Cobb
(g/m2)
Uncoated paper03–50.24 ± 0.03 a52.27 ± 0.82 ns-6.09 ± 0.32 e0 c56.62 ± 0.97 b
5≤300.14 ± 0.02 a53.73 ± 2.99 ns-11.40 ± 0.00 d0 c68.97 ± 0.62 a
10≤300.17 ± 0.03 a55.98 ± 1.56 ns-17.27 ± 0.00 c3.72 ± 0.26 b66.52 ± 3.26 a
50≤600.11 ± 0.03 b51.84 ± 1.22 ns-51.30 ± 0.64 b5.49 ± 0.56 a29.06 ± 2.02 c
10060–750.08 ± 0.03 b74.24 ± 15.58 ns-63.57 ± 3.33 a3.61 ± 0.00 b19.57 ± 2.68 d
MS-coated
paper		03–50.17 ± 0.01 c54.70 ± 0.78 b3.79 ± 0.32 c31.36 ± 2.51 b5.60 ± 0.21 b51.65 ± 1.42 a
5≤300.24 ± 0.03 a56.09 ± 4.06 b6.54 ± 0.11 a27.62 ± 1.71 b4.86 ± 0.15 c60.45 ±10.99 a
10≤300.20 ± 0.02 b65.03 ± 0.69 a6.05 ± 0.09 a29.15 ± 1.47 b5.59 ± 0.01 b57.90 ± 0.31 a
50≤600.07 ± 0.01 d56.83 ± 1.97 b4.44 ± 0.10 b46.88 ± 0.41 a6.15 ± 0.26 a25.04 ± 4.20 b
10060–75N/A
Means ± standard deviation in the same column of uncoated and MS-coated papers with different superscript letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). N/A = not-available, ns = non-significant difference.
Table 2. Physico-mechanical properties of the papers made of bacterial cellulose (BC) and eucalyptus pulp (EP) at a basis weight of 80 g/m2.
Table 2. Physico-mechanical properties of the papers made of bacterial cellulose (BC) and eucalyptus pulp (EP) at a basis weight of 80 g/m2.
BC
Content
(%)		Paper Sheet Forming Time
(min)		Thickness
(mm)		Basis Weight
(g/m2)		Coat Weight
(g/m2)		Tensile Index (N·m/g)Tear Index (mN·m2/g)Cobb
(g/m2)
Uncoated paper03–50.24 ± 0.03 a75.01 ± 7.96 ns-6.87 ± 0.26 b0 b99.58 ± 15.01 ns
5≤300.24 ± 0.03 a81.49 ± 3.19 ns-12.17 ± 0.62 a3.11 ± 0.14 a97.09 ± 4.21 ns
10≤300.17 ± 0.04 b89.17 ± 1.22 ns-11.41 ± 0.59 a4.09 ± 0.68 a91.70 ± 10.94 ns
MS-coated
paper		03–50.25 ± 0.03 a75.01 ± 7.96 b2.36 ± 1.01 ns27.52 ± 0.64 a4.70 ± 0.59 ns72.40 ± 7.80 ns
5≤300.24 ± 0.02 ab81.49 ± 3.19 a4.27 ± 3.19 ns20.35 ± 0.10 b5.20 ± 0.45 ns78.24 ± 14.62 ns
10≤300.22 ± 0.01 b89.17 ± 1.70 a5.24 ± 2.18 ns26.58 ± 0.22 a5.63 ± 0.53 ns80.83 ± 2.95 ns
Means ± standard deviation in the same column of uncoated and MS-coated papers with different superscript letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). ns = non-significant difference.
Table 3. Stereo microscope images of the uncoated and MS-coated papers at 35× magnification containing 0, 50, and 100 wt% bacterial cellulose (BC) at a basis weight of 50 and 80 g/m2.
Table 3. Stereo microscope images of the uncoated and MS-coated papers at 35× magnification containing 0, 50, and 100 wt% bacterial cellulose (BC) at a basis weight of 50 and 80 g/m2.
BC
Content
(%)		Uncoated Filter PaperMS-Coated Filter Paper
50 g/m280 g/m250 g/m280 g/m2
0Coatings 15 00720 i001Coatings 15 00720 i002Coatings 15 00720 i003Coatings 15 00720 i004
5Coatings 15 00720 i005Coatings 15 00720 i006Coatings 15 00720 i007Coatings 15 00720 i008
10Coatings 15 00720 i009Coatings 15 00720 i010Coatings 15 00720 i011Coatings 15 00720 i012
50Coatings 15 00720 i013N/ACoatings 15 00720 i014N/A
100Coatings 15 00720 i015N/AN/AN/A
N/A = not applicable.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Srichola, P.; Kongsin, K.; Apipatpapha, T.; Boonyarit, J.; Ounu, P.; Chollakup, R. Coated High-Performance Paper from Bacterial Cellulose Residue and Eucalyptus Pulp: Enhanced Mechanical Strength, Water Resistance, and Air Barrier Properties. Coatings 2025, 15, 720. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15060720

AMA Style

Srichola P, Kongsin K, Apipatpapha T, Boonyarit J, Ounu P, Chollakup R. Coated High-Performance Paper from Bacterial Cellulose Residue and Eucalyptus Pulp: Enhanced Mechanical Strength, Water Resistance, and Air Barrier Properties. Coatings. 2025; 15(6):720. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15060720

Chicago/Turabian Style

Srichola, Preeyanuch, Kunat Kongsin, Thanyachol Apipatpapha, Jirachaya Boonyarit, Peeraya Ounu, and Rungsima Chollakup. 2025. "Coated High-Performance Paper from Bacterial Cellulose Residue and Eucalyptus Pulp: Enhanced Mechanical Strength, Water Resistance, and Air Barrier Properties" Coatings 15, no. 6: 720. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15060720

APA Style

Srichola, P., Kongsin, K., Apipatpapha, T., Boonyarit, J., Ounu, P., & Chollakup, R. (2025). Coated High-Performance Paper from Bacterial Cellulose Residue and Eucalyptus Pulp: Enhanced Mechanical Strength, Water Resistance, and Air Barrier Properties. Coatings, 15(6), 720. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15060720

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