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Article

VOC Emission Spectrum and Industry-Specific Analysis in the Industrial Coating Industry of Hangzhou, China

by
Wei Tang
1,*,
Yang Xia
1,
Ping He
2,
Shenwei Tao
1,
Qiyi Zhang
1,
Dongrui Wang
1 and
Jinpeng Lin
1
1
Hangzhou Institute of Ecological Environment Science (Hangzhou Urban Ecological Environment Monitoring Station), Hangzhou 310014, China
2
Zhejiang Hangzhou Environmental Monitoring Centre, Hangzhou 310007, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2025, 15(4), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040429
Submission received: 4 March 2025 / Revised: 29 March 2025 / Accepted: 3 April 2025 / Published: 4 April 2025
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Abstract

:
This study conducted an on-site monitoring of 28 representative coating enterprises in Hangzhou City and successfully constructed the localized component spectrum of volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions from the industrial coating industry. These coating enterprises, which have a total VOC emission of approximately 7113 tons, accounting for 17.6% of the city’s total industrial VOC emissions, primarily emit benzene derivatives, ketones, esters, and halogenated hydrocarbons. Using the maximum incremental reactivity (MIR) method, the ozone formation potential (OFP) was calculated based on the annual VOC emissions from the industry. The OFP values for the different types of enterprises had significant variations, with the general equipment manufacturing, metal products, and electrical machinery industries exhibiting the highest contributions. Research results indicate that differentiated management approaches are needed for specific emission characteristics in each sub-industry, including promoting the use of water-based paints and clean production technologies, adopting efficient volatile organic compound treatment technologies, and establishing stricter emission standards with regular monitoring of highly reactive compounds. These measures are crucial for achieving more effective environmental management and continuous improvement of air quality.

1. Introduction

The rapid advancement of industrialization and urbanization has resulted in a significant rise in the emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC), positioning them as a primary contributor to urban atmospheric pollution. Over the period 2008–2017, China’s industrial sector saw VOC emissions soar from 11.4 million tons to 19.1 million tons [1]. Among these sources, the industrial coating industry is one of the major contributors, accounting for 20.0% of the total industrial VOC emissions nationwide. VOCs serve as key precursors to the formation of ozone (O3) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and they play a pivotal role in photochemical reactions, thereby significantly contributing to the formation of photochemical smog and urban haze during the summer months [2,3,4]. For example, in 2023, 79 out of 339 cities in China exceeded ozone (O3) and 105 cities exceeded fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Prolonged exposure to VOCs can lead to adverse health effects, such as dizziness and headaches, thereby posing a substantial threat to human health [5,6,7]. In contrast to sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter, current pollution control measures for VOCs remain relatively inadequate [8,9,10]. Recent studies have demonstrated that VOC control strategies based on chemical reactivity are more effective than traditional methods that rely solely on total emissions [11,12]. Consequently, conducting in-depth research on the sources and characteristics of VOCs and developing a VOC emission source chemical profile based on chemical reactivity are essential for the scientific formulation of effective VOC emission control policies. This research has thus become a pressing priority for China in its efforts to address atmospheric compound pollution [13,14].
The sources of VOCs are relatively widespread, as they are commonly found in the exhaust emissions of many industries. In China, a large number of experts and scholars have been committed to the research of VOC emission inventories, establishing VOC emission inventories covering the national level [15,16], the Yangtze River Delta region [17], the Pearl River Delta region [18], and various provincial levels [19,20]. These research results have provided important data support for understanding the current status and distribution characteristics of VOC emissions in China. However, compared with the abundance of VOC emission inventory research, domestic research on the emission profiles of VOCs from pollution sources is still insufficient. However, compared to the abundant research on VOC emission inventories, there is still a lack of studies on VOC emission source profiles in China. Research on VOC source spectra began in developed regions like Europe and the USA [21,22,23]. The U.S. EPA created the SPECIATE database, which systematically compiles North American source spectra and is continuously updated [24,25]. For decades, this database has been used to obtain specific VOC emissions data or support modeling studies in other countries. However, due to regional technical differences, using the U.S. SPECIATE database’s spectra can cause significant discrepancies [26,27]. In recent years, Chinese researchers have mainly focused on the Pearl River Delta region [28,29] and the Yangtze River Delta region [30,31]. Through these studies, experts have established characteristic profiles for some process sources. However, due to differences in environmental conditions, industrial structures, and pollution control measures in different regions, the composition of VOC emissions may vary significantly [32,33]. In recent years, several cities in China, including Beijing [34], Shanghai [35], Nanjing [36], Chengdu [37], Zhengzhou [38], and Chongqing [39], have conducted in-depth studies on the emission characteristics of VOCs in the industrial coating industry and established VOC source profiles. Since the brands, types, and component ratios of volatile raw materials such as coatings, diluents, and curing agents in the main markets of different places are not the same, they will directly affect VOC emissions, and thus the components and proportions obtained from the tests will also different [40,41]. Therefore, establishing a localized VOC emission inventory for the industrial coating industry, identifying the source profiles of VOCs, and determining the main pollutants and their contributions to O3 formation can accurately grasp the impact of VOC emissions from this industry on the local atmospheric environment [42,43].
This study focuses on the investigation of VOC emissions and source profiles in typical coating process enterprises in Hangzhou, aiming to understand the emission levels of VOCs in the industrial coating industry, obtain the localized source profiles of VOC emissions in Hangzhou’s industrial coating industry and the specific characteristics of sub-industries, analyze the characteristics of VOC components and their ozone formation potential (OFP), and provide basic data support for the coordinated control of O3 and PM2.5 pollutants in Hangzhou. It also offers important references for formulating more scientific and precise VOC reduction strategies and measures.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Location and Scope of the Study

Hangzhou, located in the southern part of the Yangtze River Delta, is situated between latitudes 30°10′ N and 30°36′ N and longitudes 119°54′ E and 120°36′ E (Figure 1). It comprises ten municipal districts, including Shangcheng, Xiacheng, Jianggan, Gongshu, Xihu, Binjiang, Xiaoshan, Yuhang, Fuyang, and Lin’an, as well as three county-level cities: Tonglu City, Jiande City, and Chun’an City. The region covers an area of 16,853 km2 and had a population of approximately 12.52 million in 2023. The gross domestic product (GDP) of Hangzhou reached 2.10 trillion Yuan in 2023, making it one of the fastest-growing economic centers in China.
Based on the latest survey results of Hangzhou’s air pollution emission inventory, this study screened out more than 700 enterprises involved in the coating process. These enterprises, classified according to the National Economic Industry Classification Code (GB/T 4754-2017) [44], have a total VOC emission of approximately 7113 tons, accounting for 17.6% of the city’s total industrial VOC emissions, as detailed in Table 1.

2.2. Selection of Test Enterprises

In the process of enterprise selection, factors such as production scale, coating process, production and pollution discharge links, types of raw and auxiliary materials, and pollution prevention and control facilities were comprehensively considered. Finally, 28 representative production enterprises were chosen as the research objects. These enterprises used different types of coatings, including solvent-based, water-based, powder coatings, and radiation-cured coatings, and were equipped with various VOC waste gas treatment technologies, such as one-time activated carbon adsorption, adsorption–desorption–catalytic combustion, and regenerative thermal oxidation (RTO) technology. The basic information of the surveyed enterprises is shown in Table 2.

2.3. Localized Testing Method

On-site sampling was conducted in strict accordance with the following national standards: “The Determination of Particulate Matter in Flue Gas and Sampling Methods for Gaseous Pollutants” (GB/T 16157-1996) [45], “Technical Specifications for Monitoring of Fixed Source Exhaust” (HJ/T 397-2007) [46], and “Emission from Stationary Sources-Sampling of Volatile Organic Compounds-Bags method” (HJ 732-2014) [47]. Using advanced vacuum pump technology, exhaust gases were precisely extracted from fixed pollution source chimneys or workshop interiors and securely stored in chemically inert Tedlar gas bags. The gas bags were connected to the sampling equipment via high-performance polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tubing, ensuring the airtight integrity of the entire sampling process and maintaining the purity of the samples. The vacuum pump operated continuously for a minimum of 5 min, and sampling was terminated when the gas bag reached 80% of its maximum capacity, at which point the vacuum pump was promptly shut off. After sampling, the gas bag samples were stored in a dark environment to preserve their integrity until analysis, and the sample was analyzed within 24 h of collection.

2.4. Sample Analysis

Sample analysis was carried out using an atmospheric volatile organic compounds monitoring system, which consists of an atmospheric pre-concentration system, a chromatographic separation system, an FID detector (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA), and a mass spectrometry detection system. The main instruments included the Entech 7650 high-concentration waste gas sampler (Entech Instruments, Inc., San Diego, CA, USA), the Entech 7200 pre-concentration instrument (Entech Instruments, Inc., San Diego, CA, USA), the Agilent 7890B gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA), and the Agilent 5977B mass spectrometer (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The samples were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed using T0-15 standard gas and PAMS standard gas, covering a total of 115 compounds. The detection limits ranged from 0.04 to 0.10 ppb. A compound was considered not detected if its concentration was below the detection limit. The detection frequencies refer to the percentage of samples in which a specific compound was detected above the analytical method’s detection limit. The types of substances were identified by comparing the mass spectra with the international standard NIST spectral library, and the ions with the largest response and most distinct features were selected as the quantitative ions. During the analysis, 20 mL, 50 mL, 100 mL, 200 mL, 300 mL, and 400 mL standard gases were injected, and the peak area data for these six concentration points were obtained. The corresponding concentration values were 1 × 10−9, 2.5 × 10−9, 5 × 10−9, 10 × 10−9, 15 × 10−9, and 20 × 10−9 mol/mol, respectively. The standard curve correlation coefficient R2 for each compound was calculated based on these values. The qualified standard for each factor was R2 > 0.99, and the overall qualification rate required was greater than 80%.

2.5. Establishment of Source Profile

Through the analysis of VOC samples, the VOC concentration levels of enterprises in different sub-industries of industrial coating are obtained. When establishing the VOC source composition spectrum, the percentage of the mass concentration of each VOC component in the total VOC mass concentration is used to characterize the VOC composition spectrum of each source sample, and the average value of enterprises in the same sub-industry is processed. The composition profiles of VOC emission sources in different sub-industries of industrial coating are obtained.

2.6. Ozone Formation Potential (OFP)

OFP is a measure of the potential of VOC species to generate O3 and is an indicator parameter that comprehensively measures the reactivity of VOC species in O3 formation. It can be used to analyze the potential contribution of different emission sources of VOC species to environmental O3 and to determine key VOC control sources. The maximum incremental reactivity (MIR) method is widely used to represent the reactivity of VOCs and the near-surface OFP. The OFP of each VOC component can be calculated by multiplying its emission amount by the MIR. This study used the MIR values to analyze the OFP of VOCs in the industrial coating industry, as shown in the following equation:
O F P i = M I R i × E m i s s i o n i
where:
OFPi is the ozone formation potential of species i, in tons per year (t/a);
MIRi is the maximum incremental reactivity coefficient of species i in the maximum ozone increment reaction [48], in grams per gram (g O3/g VOCs);
Emissioni is the emission amount of species i, in tons per year (t/a).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. VOC Emission Component Characteristics

The specific substances and their proportions measured in this study are detailed in Table 3. A total of 54 VOC components were detected in this study, including 13 alkanes, 16 benzene series compounds, 7 halogenated hydrocarbons, 4 alkenes, 1 alcohol, 2 esters, 4 ketones, and 6 other components. The main components of VOC emissions in the industrial coating industry in Hangzhou include benzene series, ketones, esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons, alkanes, alcohols, etc.

3.2. Analysis of VOC Emission Source Profiles in Industrial Coating

As shown in Table 4, the main components of the benzene series in the emissions from the industrial coating industry are toluene and m/p-xylene, with mass percentages of 20.88% and 5.03%, respectively. The detection frequencies of toluene and m/p-xylene were as high as 94.12% and over 85%, respectively. The mass percentages of ethylbenzene and o-xylene were not significant, but their detection frequencies were relatively high. Among the VOC emissions in the industrial coating, benzene series and ketones were the dominant components. Acetone, as one of the major ketone compounds, had a mass percentage of 21.86% and a detection rate of 52.94%. The main substance in the ester category was ethyl acetate, with a mass percentage of 24.02%, but its detection rate was low, at only 32.35%. The mass percentage of halogenated hydrocarbons was 17.06%, with dichloromethane accounting for 15.27%. The mass percentages of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, sulfur compounds, and other categories were relatively small.
The study shows that the VOC emission components of Hangzhou’s industrial coating industry mainly include compounds such as benzenes, ketones, esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons, alkanes, alcohols, etc., as shown in Figure 2, in which benzenes accounted for 29.6%, and ketones, esters and halogenated hydrocarbons accounted for 26.4%, 24.0% and 17.1%. These compounds have garnered significant attention due to their high reactivity and substantial contributions to photochemical smog and ozone formation. The high proportions of benzene series and ketone compounds suggest that in formulating regional VOC control strategies, priority should be given to the reduction of these compounds [49,50].

3.3. Analysis of VOC Source Profiles by Industry

Figure 3 provides an overview of the VOC components in key industrial coating industries, highlighting the differences in VOC emission components among different industrial coating industries. In the furniture manufacturing industry (C21), benzene series are the most significant components in the coating VOC emissions, accounting for 38.7%, followed by halogenated hydrocarbons and alkanes, which account for 27.4% and 24.8%, respectively. In the cultural, educational, and sports goods manufacturing coating process (C24), esters are the most significant components, accounting for 52.6%, followed by ketones, which account for 35.4%. In the metal products coating process (C33), halogenated hydrocarbons are the most significant components, accounting for as much as 75.7%, followed by benzene series, which account for 16.6%. In the general equipment manufacturing coating process (C34), benzene series are the most significant components, accounting for 59.0%, followed by halogenated hydrocarbons, which account for 37.7%. In the automobile manufacturing coating process (C36), the components with higher proportions are benzene series and ketones, accounting for 53.1% and 26.4%, respectively. In the electrical machinery and equipment manufacturing coating process (C38), ketones and other components account for 33.9% and 21.0%, respectively. In the computer, communication, and other electronic equipment manufacturing coating process (C39), ketones and halogenated hydrocarbons are the components with higher proportions, accounting for 78.1% and 16.0%, respectively.
The distinct emission characteristics of VOC components in different industries may be related to factors such as the use of raw and auxiliary materials and the selection of end-of-pipe treatment technologies. For example, in terms of raw and auxiliary material use, the high emission of benzene series in the furniture manufacturing industry may be related to the extensive use of wooden materials and solvent-based coatings, while the high emission of esters in the cultural, educational, and sports goods manufacturing industry may be related to the large use of water-based coatings. In terms of end-of-pipe treatment technology selection, destructive treatment technologies such as thermal oxidation may produce by-products when converting VOCs into carbon dioxide and water, while recovery treatment technologies such as activated carbon adsorption capture VOCs using adsorbent materials to reduce the concentration of VOCs without destroying these compounds. These industry-specific characteristics are crucial for formulating targeted VOC reduction strategies.

3.4. OFP of Various Industrial Coating Sectors

Based on the VOC emissions (Table 1) from various industries in Hangzhou City and their main components (Figure 3), the OFP value of the industrial coating industry in Hangzhou was calculated to be 13,443 tons.
Figure 4 shows the contribution of various VOCs to the OFP of Hangzhou’s industrial coating industry. Aromatic hydrocarbons contribute the most at 63.2%, followed by ketones at 12.8% and alkenes at 7.0%. As shown in Figure 2, aromatic hydrocarbons account for about one-third of VOC emissions but over 60% of the OFP. Olefins make up only 0.1% of VOC emissions yet contribute 7% to the OFP. These two compound groups play an extremely important role in ozone formation.
Figure 5 shows the VOC emissions and OFP values of various industrial coating industries. The general equipment manufacturing industry had the highest OFP, accounting for 26.4%, followed by the metal products industry and the electrical machinery and equipment manufacturing industry, with proportions of 25.2% and 23.2%, respectively. Although the general equipment manufacturing, automobile manufacturing, and furniture manufacturing industries did not have high contributions to VOC emissions, the high proportion of benzene series in their VOC emissions significantly increased their OFP contribution rates.
The calculation results of OFP reveal that the general equipment manufacturing, metal products, and electrical machinery and equipment manufacturing industries have the highest OFP values, which is likely due to the widespread use of highly reactive solvents and coatings in these industries [51,52,53]. Therefore, effective VOC emission control in these industries is crucial for reducing the regional ozone formation potential.

3.5. Comparison with Other Studies

In recent years, many studies have focused on the furniture manufacturing and automobile manufacturing industries in other cities. This study compared the research results of VOC component species in these two industries in Hangzhou with those in other cities. As shown in Figure 6, although there are differences in the types of VOCs emitted from the furniture manufacturing and automobile manufacturing industries in different places, they are generally dominated by aromatic hydrocarbons, oxygenated VOCs and alkanes, which are directly related to the types of raw and auxiliary materials used. In the furniture industry in Hangzhou, the mass percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons is consistent with other regions and is the dominant component, while the mass percentage of halogenated hydrocarbons is as high as 27.4%, which is significantly higher than that in other regions, mainly due to the heavy use of methylene chloride in this industry, compared with other regions that rely mainly on alcohol and ester diluents. The mass percentage of halogenated hydrocarbons as a diluent also reaches 11.0% in the automobile manufacturing industry, while alcohols and esters dominate as diluents in other regions. In the SPECIATE database [25], the industrial coating VOC components are mainly other compounds (with mineral spirits accounting for 31.05%) and aromatic hydrocarbons (23.36%), which differ significantly from the situation in Hangzhou and other cities in China.
In the furniture and automobile manufacturing industries in Hangzhou, the proportion of dichloromethane is higher than that of ethyl acetate, indicating that the substitution rate of the environmentally friendly diluent ethyl acetate for the highly toxic dichloromethane still needs to be improved, and more efforts should be made to promote the source substitution of volatile solvents.

3.6. Uncertainty Analysis

The VOC emissions in each industry were calculated based on the emission factor method described in the Technical Guidelines for the Compilation of Atmospheric Volatile Organic Compounds Source Emission Inventory (Trial) issued by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment. The emission factors were selected based on industry type, main products or raw materials, process or equipment type, and emission control technology, according to the recommended coefficients in technical guidelines and other technical materials. The basic emission data of enterprises may be underreported, and the emission factors are based on the recommended values in guidelines or technical manuals, which inevitably introduces uncertainty in the calculation of VOC emissions.
A total of 54 components were detected in this study. However, according to relevant research [54], some substances in the VOC components analyzed by the GC-FID/MC system are still undetectable. It has also been found that low volatility or “sticky” compounds will be absorbed on the walls of Tedlar bags and not be detected in the analysis [55,56], although the ozone formation potential (OFP) of these compounds is far less important than aromatic hydrocarbons and other substances. Therefore, the estimated OFP values cannot fully reflect the actual VOC emissions in the local area, and there will be certain errors and uncertainties between the total VOC emissions and the corresponding OFP value calculations.

4. Conclusions

This study identified benzene series, ketones, esters, and halogenated hydrocarbons as the predominant VOCs emitted by the industrial coating industry in Hangzhou, collectively accounting for 97.17% of total emissions. Key contributors include ethyl acetate (24.02%), acetone (21.86%), toluene (20.88%), dichloromethane (15.27%), and m/p-xylene (5.03%). Emission characteristics vary significantly across different sub-industries: benzene series dominate in furniture manufacturing, esters in cultural, educational, and sports goods manufacturing, and halogenated hydrocarbons in metal products and general equipment manufacturing. The automobile manufacturing industry is characterized by high emissions of benzene series and ketones, while the electrical machinery and equipment manufacturing industry shows elevated levels of ketones. The computer, communication, and other electronic equipment manufacturing industries primarily emit ketones.
The ozone formation potential (OFP) analysis reveals substantial differences among industries, with the general equipment manufacturing industry exhibiting the highest OFP (26.4%), followed by the metal products industry (25.2%) and the electrical machinery and equipment manufacturing industry (23.2%). Despite lower total VOC emissions, the high proportion of benzene series in the general equipment manufacturing, automobile manufacturing, and furniture manufacturing industries significantly increases their OFP contribution rates. These findings underscore the necessity for Hangzhou to prioritize the control of VOC emissions in the general equipment manufacturing, metal products, and electrical machinery and equipment manufacturing industries. Additionally, enhanced attention and emission control measures are recommended for the automobile manufacturing and furniture manufacturing sectors. Given the distinct emission characteristics and OFP values across industries, Hangzhou should implement differentiated management strategies when devising VOC reduction plans.
Based on the research findings, this study proposes a comprehensive set of control measures for the industrial coating industry in Hangzhou, aimed at significantly reducing VOC emissions and their ozone formation potential (OFP). These measures include promoting the use of water-based coatings in furniture manufacturing and the production of cultural, educational, and sports goods, which is expected to reduce benzene and halogenated hydrocarbon emissions by 30–40%, thereby lowering overall VOCs and OFP contributions. Additionally, the implementation of advanced VOC treatment technologies, such as regenerative thermal oxidation (RTO), in metal products and general equipment manufacturing is projected to achieve a 40% reduction in VOC emissions and a substantial decrease in OFP. The study also emphasizes stricter emission standards and regular monitoring to target high-reactivity compounds like benzene series in general equipment, metal products, and electrical machinery manufacturing, aiming to reduce OFP by 20–30%. Furthermore, encouraging the adoption of clean production technologies across all sub-industries, with a focus on reducing high-VOC raw materials, is expected to cut VOC emissions by 20%. SMEs will receive technical support and regulatory oversight to enhance their pollution control capabilities, ensuring a 30% reduction in VOC emissions within the next three years. Collectively, these measures are anticipated to reduce total VOC emissions from Hangzhou’s industrial coating industry by 30–40% over the next five years, significantly lowering the likelihood of ozone formation and contributing to improved air quality.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/coatings15040429/s1, Table S1: Detailed data of VOC components of 28 enterprises.

Author Contributions

W.T. and S.T. conceived the idea. P.H., Y.X. and D.W. designed the experiment. W.T., Q.Z. and D.W. analyzed the data. W.T., P.H. and J.L. participated in thewriting of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province (no. 2023C03127)and Agriculture and Social Development General Project of Hangzhou City (20201203B156).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained with the article or Supplementary Materials.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Study domain and location. (a) China; (b) Hangzhou.
Figure 1. Study domain and location. (a) China; (b) Hangzhou.
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Figure 2. Proportion of VOC emission components in the industrial coating industry.
Figure 2. Proportion of VOC emission components in the industrial coating industry.
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Figure 3. Overview of VOC components in various industrial coating industries.
Figure 3. Overview of VOC components in various industrial coating industries.
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Figure 4. OFP contribution rate of various VOCs in industrial coating industries.
Figure 4. OFP contribution rate of various VOCs in industrial coating industries.
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Figure 5. VOC emissions and OFP value in various industrial coating industries.
Figure 5. VOC emissions and OFP value in various industrial coating industries.
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Figure 6. Comparison of source profiles of furniture manufacturing and automobile manufacturing industries. Beijing [34], Chengdu [37], Chongqing [39]; Beijing [34], Shanghai [35], Nanjing [36]; SPECIATE [25].
Figure 6. Comparison of source profiles of furniture manufacturing and automobile manufacturing industries. Beijing [34], Chengdu [37], Chongqing [39]; Beijing [34], Shanghai [35], Nanjing [36]; SPECIATE [25].
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Table 1. VOC emissions from industrial coating in Hangzhou.
Table 1. VOC emissions from industrial coating in Hangzhou.
Industry CodeCategory NameVOC Emissions (t/a)Percentage (%)
C21Furniture Manufacturing671 9.4%
C24Cultural, Educational, and Sporting Goods Manufacturing294 4.1%
C33Metal Products Industry2953 41.5%
C34General Equipment Manufacturing919 12.9%
C36Automobile Manufacturing279 3.9%
C38Electrical Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing903 12.7%
C39Computer, Communication, and Other Electronic Equipment Manufacturing1094 15.4%
Total7113 100%
Table 2. Information about monitoring industries.
Table 2. Information about monitoring industries.
Enterprise NameIndustry CodeCategory NameType of Coating UsedWaste Gas Treatment Facility
Enterprise 1C21Furniture ManufacturingSolvent-based, Water-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 2C21Furniture ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 3C21Furniture ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 4C21Furniture ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 5C24Cultural, Educational, and Sporting Goods ManufacturingWater-basedActivated Carbon Adsorption
Enterprise 6C24Cultural, Educational, and Sporting Goods ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 7C24Cultural, Educational, and Sporting Goods ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 8C24Cultural, Educational, and Sporting Goods ManufacturingSolvent-basedSpray Washing + Activated Carbon Adsorption
Enterprise 9C24Cultural, Educational, and Sporting Goods ManufacturingWater-based PaintActivated Carbon Adsorption
Enterprise 10C33Metal Products IndustrySolvent-basedHigh-Temperature Incineration
Enterprise 11C33Metal Products IndustrySolvent-basedActivated Carbon Adsorption + RTO
Enterprise 12C33Metal Products IndustrySolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 13C33Metal Products IndustrySolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 14C33Metal Products IndustrySolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 15C33Metal Products IndustrySolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 16C34General Equipment ManufacturingWater-based PaintActivated Carbon Adsorption
Enterprise 17C34General Equipment ManufacturingPowder CoatingPhotocatalysis + Activated Carbon Adsorption
Enterprise 18C34General Equipment ManufacturingSolvent-basedTO
Enterprise 19C34General Equipment ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 20C36Automobile ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 21C36Automobile ManufacturingSolvent-basedRegenerative Thermal Oxidizer
Enterprise 22C36Automobile ManufacturingSolvent-basedRegenerative Thermal Oxidizer
Enterprise 23C36Automobile ManufacturingSolvent-basedRegenerative Thermal Oxidizer
Enterprise 24C36Automobile ManufacturingWater-based, Solvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 25C38Electrical Machinery and Equipment ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 26C38Electrical Machinery and Equipment ManufacturingSolvent-based, Water-basedSpray Washing + Activated Carbon Adsorption
Enterprise 27C39Computer, Communication, and Other Electronic Equipment ManufacturingSolvent-based, Water-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Enterprise 28C39Computer, Communication, and Other Electronic Equipment ManufacturingSolvent-basedAdsorption/Desorption Catalytic Oxidation
Table 3. Source composition spectrum of VOCs in the different industrial coating in Hangzhou 1)/%.
Table 3. Source composition spectrum of VOCs in the different industrial coating in Hangzhou 1)/%.
Compound CategoryVOC ComponentMass Percentage (Standard Deviation)
C21C24C26C34C36C38C39
Alkanesn-Hexane2.93 (0.03)0.06 (0.00)NDND0.05 (0.00)ND0.19 (0.00)
Methylcyclopentane2.48 (0.03)0.07 (0.00)NDNDNDND0.09 (0.00)
IsopentaneNDNDNDND0.33 (0.01)3.06 (0.00)ND
n-ButaneNDNDND0.53 (0.01)ND11.17 (0.00)ND
n-PentaneNDNDNDNDND3.40 (0.00)ND
3-Methylpentane6.65 (0.09)NDNDNDNDNDND
Cyclohexane1.02 (0.01)NDNDND3.14 (0.07)NDND
IsobutaneNDNDNDNDNDNDND
2,2-Dimethylbutane1.10 (0.01)NDNDNDNDNDND
2,3-Dimethylbutane1.87 (0.02)NDNDNDNDNDND
2-Methylpentane10.43 (0.10)NDNDNDNDNDND
2,4-Dimethylpentane0.24 (0.00)NDNDNDNDNDND
3-Methylhexane0.02 (0.00)NDNDNDNDNDND
Benzene SeriesToluene17.14 (0.08)2.01 (0.02)1.88 (0.02)35.07 (0.17)11.34 (0.10)3.94 (0.03)0.70 (0.01)
m/p-Xylene13.02 (0.09)2.03 (0.01)7.72 (0.04)13.00 (0.08)13.11 (0.13)ND0.25 (0.00)
Ethylbenzene3.74 (0.03)1.16 (0.01)4.38 (0.03)4.00 (0.03)4.47 (0.04)1.77 (0.02)0.06 (0.00)
o-Xylene2.21 (0.02)0.49 (0.01)3.22 (0.02)4.76 (0.03)4.63 (0.04)1.72 (0.02)0.07 (0.00)
BenzeneNDNDND2.43 (0.05)0.47 (0.01)2.31 (0.01)ND
1,2,4-TrimethylbenzeneNDNDNDND1.61 (0.03)NDND
Styrene2.19(0.04)NDND0.02 (0.00)4.92 (0.11)NDND
1,3,5-TrimethylbenzeneNDNDNDND1.77 (0.03)NDND
p-EthyltolueneNDNDNDND1.77 (0.03)NDND
m-EthyltolueneNDNDNDND3.17 (0.05)NDND
o-EthyltolueneNDNDNDND1.77 (0.03)NDND
1,2,3-TrimethylbenzeneNDNDNDND1.96 (0.03)NDND
PropylbenzeneNDNDNDND1.69 (0.03)NDND
IsopropylbenzeneNDNDNDND0.61 (0.01)NDND
m-DiethylbenzeneNDNDNDND0.31 (0.01)NDND
p-DiethylbenzeneNDNDNDND0.32 (0.01)NDND
Halogenated HydrocarbonsDichloromethane26.28 (0.08)0.30 (0.00)67.66(0.17)30.53 (0.21)10.99 (0.15)9.17 (0.05)15.97 (0.13)
1,2-DichloroethaneND0.99 (0.02)6.59 (0.08)1.12 (0.02)NDNDND
ChloromethaneND0.06 (0.00)0.70 (0.02)6.23 (0.12)NDND0.02 (0.00)
HexachlorobutadieneNDNDND0.16 (0.00)NDNDND
DifluorodichloromethaneND0.18 (0.00)NDNDNDNDND
1,2-DichloropropaneNDND0.20 (0.00)NDNDNDND
1,1-DichloroethyleneND0.19 (0.00)NDNDNDNDND
AlkenesButadieneNDNDND0.93 (0.02)0.14 (0.00)1.43 (0.02)ND
trans-2-ButeneNDNDNDND0.20 (0.00)1.28 (0.02)ND
cis-2-ButeneNDNDNDND0.20 (0.00)1.31 (0.02)ND
n-ButeneNDNDNDND0.57 (0.01)3.29 (0.05)ND
AlcoholsIsopropanolND2.00 (0.04)NDND0.56 (0.01)NDND
EstersEthyl Acetate7.76 (0.14)54.33 (0.05)NDND1.11 (0.02)ND4.53 (0.06)
Vinyl AcetateNDNDNDNDND1.39 (0.02)ND
KetonesAcetone0.63 (0.01)26.23 (0.05)4.81 (0.12)0.16 (0.00)18.98 (0.20)13.25 (0.08)52.92 (0.33)
2-Butanone0.28 (0.01)4.82 (0.04)2.85 (0.07)ND7.02 (0.10)11.78 (0.03)15.54 (0.07)
4-Methyl-2-pentanoneND4.86 (0.06)NDND0.12 (0.00)8.78 (0.12)9.67 (0.04)
2-HexanoneND0.15 (0.00)NDNDNDNDND
Sulfur Carbon DisulfideNDNDNDND0.19 (0.00)NDND
Compounds
Others		AcroleinND0.02 (0.00)ND1.07 (0.02)0.31 (0.01)1.90 (0.03)ND
AcetaldehydeND0.01 (0.00)NDND0.55 (0.01)18.03 (0.03)ND
Methyl tert-Butyl EtherNDNDNDND0.05 (0.00)1.01 (0.00)ND
TetrahydrofuranND0.02 (0.00)NDND0.36 (0.01)NDND
PropionaldehydeNDNDNDND0.50 (0.01)NDND
ButyraldehydeNDNDNDND0.70 (0.02)NDN0 (N0)
1) Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations, ND means not detected.
Table 4. Composition spectrum of VOC emission sources in the industrial coating industry.
Table 4. Composition spectrum of VOC emission sources in the industrial coating industry.
Compound CategoryVOC ComponentDetection FrequenciesMass PercentageSubtotal
Alkanesn-Hexane17.65%0.295%1.44%
Methylcyclopentane11.76%0.062%
Isopentane11.76%0.008%
n-Butane8.82%0.044%
n-Pentane8.82%0.006%
3-Methylpentane5.88%0.314%
Cyclohexane5.88%0.066%
Isobutane2.94%0.005%
2,2-Dimethylbutane2.94%0.038%
2,3-Dimethylbutane2.94%0.079%
2-Methylpentane2.94%0.504%
2,4-Dimethylpentane2.94%0.009%
3-Methylhexane2.94%0.008%
Aromatic hydrocarbonsToluene94.12%20.88%29.65%
m/p-Xylene85.29%5.030%
Ethylbenzene85.29%1.810%
o-Xylene79.41%1.510%
Benzene20.59%0.279%
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene11.76%0.007%
Styrene11.76%0.123%
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene8.82%0.003%
p-Ethyltoluene8.82%0.003%
m-Ethyltoluene8.82%0.006%
o-Ethyltoluene8.82%0.003%
1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene5.88%0.002%
Propylbenzene5.88%0.001%
Isopropylbenzene2.94%0.001%
m-Diethylbenzene2.94%0.0002%
p-Diethylbenzene2.94%0.0002%
Halogenated HydrocarbonsDichloromethane64.71%15.27%17.06%
1,2-Dichloroethane17.65%1.25%
Chloromethane14.71%0.389%
Hexachlorobutadiene2.94%0.008%
Difluorodichloromethane2.94%0.0003%
1,2-Dichloropropane2.94%0.105%
1,1-Dichloroethylene2.94%0.038%
AlkenesButadiene8.82%0.036%0.05%
trans-2-Butene5.88%0.001%
cis-2-Butene5.88%0.001%
n-Butene5.88%0.013%
AlcoholsIsopropanol11.76%1.24%1.24%
EstersEthyl Acetate32.35%24.02%24.03%
Vinyl Acetate2.94%0.005%
KetonesAcetone52.94%21.86%26.43%
2-Butanone38.24%2.78%
4-Methyl-2-pentanone17.65%1.78%
2-Hexanone2.94%0.003%
Sulfur Carbon Disulfide5.88%0.003%0.003%
Compounds
Others		Acrolein11.76%0.060%0.10%
Acetaldehyde11.76%0.032%
Methyl tert-Butyl Ether8.82%0.002%
Tetrahydrofuran5.88%0.002%
Propionaldehyde2.94%0.002%
Butyraldehyde2.94%0.005%
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Tang, W.; Xia, Y.; He, P.; Tao, S.; Zhang, Q.; Wang, D.; Lin, J. VOC Emission Spectrum and Industry-Specific Analysis in the Industrial Coating Industry of Hangzhou, China. Coatings 2025, 15, 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040429

AMA Style

Tang W, Xia Y, He P, Tao S, Zhang Q, Wang D, Lin J. VOC Emission Spectrum and Industry-Specific Analysis in the Industrial Coating Industry of Hangzhou, China. Coatings. 2025; 15(4):429. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040429

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tang, Wei, Yang Xia, Ping He, Shenwei Tao, Qiyi Zhang, Dongrui Wang, and Jinpeng Lin. 2025. "VOC Emission Spectrum and Industry-Specific Analysis in the Industrial Coating Industry of Hangzhou, China" Coatings 15, no. 4: 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040429

APA Style

Tang, W., Xia, Y., He, P., Tao, S., Zhang, Q., Wang, D., & Lin, J. (2025). VOC Emission Spectrum and Industry-Specific Analysis in the Industrial Coating Industry of Hangzhou, China. Coatings, 15(4), 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040429

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