Next Article in Journal
Preparation and Properties of Al-SiC Composite Coatings from AlCl3-LiAlH4-Benzene-THF System
Previous Article in Journal
Microstructural Evolution of Cold-Rolled Type 347H Austenitic Heat-Resistant Steel
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Coatings
Volume 15
Issue 10
10.3390/coatings15101158
coatings-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Research on Intermittent Tensile Deformation to Improve the Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel

by
Huimin Tao
1,*,
Yafang Cai
1,2,
Yong Huang
1,
Xiaoliang Wu
3,
Zeqi Tong
1 and
Mingming Ding
1
1
Nanxun Innovation Institute, Zhejiang University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Hangzhou 310018, China
2
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
3
Zili Fastening Technology (Huzhou) Co., Ltd., Huzhou 313009, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2025, 15(10), 1158; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15101158
Submission received: 14 August 2025 / Revised: 28 September 2025 / Accepted: 1 October 2025 / Published: 4 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Corrosion, Wear and Erosion)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

This article conducts intermittent tensile deformation on 304 stainless steel; observes the microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion performance evolution of stainless steel under different deformation conditions; and reveals its mechanisms. The results indicate that the performance of 304 stainless steel is significantly affected by the degree of intermittent deformation. Small intermittent deformation can produce a good microstructure with uniform distribution, low martensite content, and weak texture, optimizing comprehensive mechanical properties by improving ductility, yield strength, and tensile strength. On the contrary, excessive intermittent deformation increases martensitic transformation and enhances texture, leading to a transition from ductile fracture to brittle fracture. In addition, small intermittent deformations improve corrosion resistance by promoting the formation of a stable passivation film. The microstructural changes affect the deformation mechanism and surface passivation film of stainless steel, making its mechanical strength and corrosion resistance superior to larger intermittent deformation amounts. Small intermittent deformation can improve the mechanical and corrosion properties of 304 stainless steel. This study provides a reference for the formation and performance control of metal materials and has certain practical value.

1. Introduction

Austenitic stainless steel has excellent mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and cold and hot processing performance, and is widely used in both daily life and industrial fields [1,2,3]. In practical applications, stainless steel materials often cannot be formed in one go and often undergo intermittent multiple stretching or pre-deformation processes. For example, in processes such as multi-pass cold working and cold heading forming, the material usually bears varying amounts of plastic strain at different stages, and products formed by multi-pass deformation often have excellent performance. The plastic deformation process not only significantly changes the mechanical properties of materials but also induces significant microstructural evolution at the microscale [4,5]. However, there is little research on the microstructure, macroscopic properties, and correlation mechanism between these materials subjected to multiple intermittent tensile deformations, and further in-depth research is needed.
Many scholars have conducted extensive research on the macroscopic properties and microstructure of austenitic stainless steel under different deformation conditions. Qing et al. [6] treated 304 stainless steel by combining pre-stretching and surface mechanical rolling processes, and analyzed the properties and microstructure of 304 stainless steel. They explored the effects of pre-stretching and surface mechanical rolling processes on the fatigue performance of 304 stainless steel and revealed the mechanism by which the combination of pre-stretching and surface mechanical rolling processes improves the fatigue performance of 304 stainless steel. Fan et al. [7] aimed to improve the mechanical properties of predeformed SUS 304 ultra-thin tapes by adjusting their microstructure. They treated the predeformed SUS 304 ultra-thin tapes with high-energy pulse current and studied the changes in their microstructure and mechanical properties. Zhe et al. [8] studied the effects of six different pre-strain states from the original state to the 35% pre-strain state on the mechanical properties, microstructure, fatigue life, and fracture mode of 304 austenitic stainless steel, and established a bilinear relationship between mechanical properties and pre-strain. The research results indicate that pre-strain regulates the mechanical properties and fatigue life of 304 stainless steel through a dual mechanism of work hardening and martensite transformation, and the critical pre-strain point is the turning point of performance evolution. Yang et al. [9] studied the phase transformation and deformation behavior of SUS304 stainless steel under quasistatic to high strain rates using intermittent tensile tests. In the tensile experiment at high strain rates, a single loading test was achieved through an improved Hopkinson bar technique. The results indicate that strain rate has a significant impact on strain-induced martensite transformation (SIMT). However, there is still limited research on the mechanical properties and microstructure of materials under multiple intermittent stretching conditions, especially lacking studies on the performance and microstructure evolution mechanisms under different intermittent deformation conditions. Meanwhile, the relationship between the microstructure of materials after deformation and their corrosion behavior is also one of the current research hotspots in corrosion science and tissue regulation.
Therefore, this article conducted intermittent tensile deformation experiments of austenitic 304 stainless steel at room temperature (including 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 6 mm intermittent deformation) and observed the changes in its mechanical and corrosion properties, combining the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis methods to obtain the fracture morphology, grain orientation distribution (IPF), diffraction quality (BC), and phase distribution (PH) under various deformation variables, and exploring the microstructure response mechanism of 304 stainless steel during the intermittent deformation process. In addition, based on the results of corrosion experiments, the influence of different intermittent deformation conditions on the corrosion resistance of 304 stainless steel is further analyzed, providing a theoretical basis for the performance evaluation and microstructure control design of deformed stainless steel.

2. Materials and Methods

The experimental material used in this article is 304 stainless steel produced by the company, and its composition is shown in Table 1. The sample specifications during the tensile test are shown in Figure 1. The total length of the sample is 70 mm, the width is 15 mm, the thickness is 0.73 mm, the length of the parallel section is 25 mm, the width of the parallel section is 4 mm, and the transition arc radius is 7 mm. According to Appendix B.2 of GB/T228.1-2021 “Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials Part 1: Room Temperature Test Method”, the CMT5205 electronic universal testing machine is used with a tensile rate of 2 mm/min. The sample is subjected to one-time tensile fractures and multiple intermittent tensile fractures (including 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 6 mm intermittent deformations). The multiple intermittent stretching mentioned in this article refers to applying the same small deformation amount to the sample each time, completely unloading the equipment during the interval, and then applying the same displacement amount again. This cycle is repeated until the sample is completely broken. We repeat the tensile test under the same conditions three times to ensure the accuracy of the experimental results.
We use a wire cutting machine to obtain metallographic microscope, scanning electron microscope, and electron backscatter diffraction samples from the deformation area of the tensile specimen, and analyze the microstructure and morphology of the sample. The acceleration voltage during EBSD testing is 15 kV, the scanning speed is 636.24 Hz, and the step length is 0.75 μm.
Using a cutting mechanism to prepare samples for electrochemical polarization testing and open circuit potential testing, the effects of different intermittent deformations on the corrosion resistance and pitting resistance of 304 stainless steel were tested. During the experiment, the back of the obtained stainless steel sample was welded onto an insulated copper wire, and epoxy resin yellow feldspar was embedded into a plastic tube to make a sample with a test area of 1 cm2. Then, we used SiC sandpaper to polish the sample step by step, and finally, mechanically polished the sample with a grinding paste with a particle size of 0.5 μm and cleaned the surface of the sample with ultrasonic waves. The experiment was conducted using an IviumStat electrochemical workstation (Ivium Technologies B.V., Eindhoven, The Netherlands), with a stainless steel sample as the working electrode, a platinum plate as the counter electrode, and a saturated calomel electrode as the reference electrode. The experimental electrolyte solution was 3.5 wt% NaCl (mass fraction) at a temperature of (25 ± 1) °C. Before testing, we conducted an open circuit potential test for at least 60 min until the testing system stabilized. The dynamic polarization experiment scanned from (−1.0) VSCE to (+1.0) VSCE at a rate of (+0.2) mV/s, and finally obtained the dynamic polarization curve. Each experiment should be repeated at least 5 times to ensure its reliability. After the experiment was completed, we observed the open circuit potential test curve and dynamic polarization curve and analyzed the effect of different intermittent deformation amounts on the corrosion resistance of stainless steel materials.

3. Results

3.1. Mechanical Properties

The nominal stress–strain curve and key parameters of the mechanical properties of 304 stainless steel in a room temperature tensile test are shown in Figure 2. As shown in Figure 2a, as the intermittent deformation interval decreases from 6 mm to 2 mm, the stress–strain curve shifts upward, and the strength gradually increases. The strength of the 2 mm specimen increases significantly; meanwhile, as the intermittent deformation interval decreases, the fracture strain of the specimen gradually increases. From Figure 2a,b it can be seen that as the intermittent deformation decreases, the yield strength and tensile strength of the sample increase. Among them, the sample with multiple intermittent tensile breaks of 2 mm has the highest tensile strength and yield strength. As shown in Figure 2c, the fracture strain of 304 stainless steel increases after intermittent deformation and gradually increases with the decrease in intermittent deformation. Table 2 shows the specific values of key characteristics of stress–strain curves under different tensile deformation conditions. It can be observed that as the intermittent deformation decreases, the fracture strain of 304 stainless steel increases and the yield strength and tensile strength increase. When subjected to 2 mm intermittent deformation stretching, the fracture strain of 304 stainless steel can reach 78.3% and the yield strength and tensile strength can reach 348.2 MPa and 878.3 MPa, respectively. Based on the above analysis, a smaller amount of intermittent deformation can improve the mechanical properties of 304 stainless steel.

3.2. Microstructure

The metallographic diagram of 304 stainless steel under different intermittent deformation amounts is shown in Figure 3. When not deformed, the grains of 304 stainless steel have an irregular polygonal morphology. After deformation, the grains in each figure are arranged in an elongated, strip-shaped, or fibrous manner, and the material undergoes plastic deformation to stretch and orient the grains. The long axis direction of the grains is consistent with the stretching direction. The partial area of the sample with 2 mm intermittent tensile fracture has slender and tightly arranged grains, indicating a significant degree of tensile deformation; the grain size of the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 4 mm is relatively uniform, showing a certain directionality but not as significant as that of the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 2 mm; and the grains of the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 6 mm are still in their original equiaxed state, and the degree of deformation is the lowest.
The EBSD test results of 304 stainless steels with different intermittent deformations are shown in Figure 4. The original undeformed 304 stainless steel grains have polygonal shapes with different orientations, and almost all stainless steels have austenitic structures without martensitic phases. As the intermittent deformation gradually increases, the 304 stainless steel specimen exhibits significant microstructural evolution characteristics during the tensile process. The BC diagram shows that the grain boundaries of the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 6 mm are clear and the grain size is relatively large; the grain contour of the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 4 mm becomes blurred, indicating the presence of a large number of substructures inside the grain during plastic deformation, with obvious band deformation; and the grain size of the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 2 mm further blurs or even becomes finer, and the bands are denser. The IPF diagram shows the phenomenon of grain elongation and convergence in orientation along the stretching direction. The color distribution of the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 2 mm is relatively random and there is no obvious texture; the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 4 mm shows orientation changes inside the grains, and some areas show improved orientation consistency, indicating the formation of texture; and the appearance of strip-shaped areas of the same color in the sample with multiple intermittent tensile fractures of 6 mm indicates that the material has formed a significant deformation texture during the deformation process. In addition, according to the PH diagram (red represents martensite, green represents austenite), it can be seen that 304 stainless steel undergoes a significant transformation from austenite to martensite during tensile deformation, and this behavior is significantly distinct for different intermittent deformation amounts. It can be seen that the transformation behavior from austenite to martensite significantly increases with the increase in intermittent deformation. Figure 5 shows the martensite content of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. When the intermittent deformation amounts are 2 mm, 4 mm, and 6 mm, the martensite content is 62.2%, 77.0%, and 86.8%, respectively. It can be seen that as the intermittent deformation amount decreases, the martensite content decreases after deformation. Meanwhile, observing the distribution of martensite in the figure, it can be seen that when the intermittent deformation is small (2 mm), martensite and austenite in 304 stainless steel are staggered and dispersed, while when the intermittent deformation is large (4 mm or 6 mm), the martensite content is high and distributed in flakes. Different martensite contents and distribution patterns will have an impact on the mechanical and corrosion properties of 304 stainless steel [10,11,12].
Analysis suggests that moderate intermittent deformation (2 mm) induces lattice recovery and dislocation redistribution during tensile pauses, coupled with the face-centered cubic structure of austenite, which is a relatively stable morphology exhibiting high tensile strength (878.3 MPa) and elongation (0.783). Strain-induced martensite transformation and texture hardening significantly improve the yield strength of specimens, while martensite exhibits high hardness and brittleness due to its complex crystal structure. These organizational evolution trends are consistent with the strength and elongation improvement trend of macroscopic experimental results.
The fracture morphology of 304 stainless steel tensile specimens subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions is shown in Figure 6. From the figure, it can be seen that the fracture surface of the tensile specimen is finer and there are fewer cracks. As the intermittent tensile deformation increases from 2 mm to 6 mm, the fracture surface of the sample becomes rough, and the plastic deformation traces decrease. The sample with a 6 mm intermittent tensile fracture has the least plastic deformation and has a brittle fracture; there are numerous ductile dimples on the fracture surface of the 2 mm intermittent tensile fracture specimen, indicating ductile fracture. This fracture mode enhances its strength. Secondly, with the increase in intermittent tensile deformation, the number of fracture cracks increases and they become more complex. Different fracture modes result in different mechanical properties [13,14].

3.3. Corrosion Performance

Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the electrochemical open circuit and dynamic polarization test results of 304 stainless steel under different intermittent tensile conditions. As shown in Figure 7, the open circuit potential (EOCP) of all samples gradually increases in the initial stage and stabilizes after about 3600 s. The changes in EOCP are closely related to the formation and density of the passivation film on the surface of the sample: lower EOCP values reflect that the surface passivation film is porous or incomplete with weaker protective ability, and it is more prone to corrosion [15,16,17]. As shown in Figure 7, the lowest stable EOCP of the sample after one tensile fracture directly confirms that the high residual stress and microcracks caused by severe deformation severely damage the quality and self-healing ability of the passivation film. In contrast, the passive film formed by multiple intermittent stretching processes is relatively denser and more stable. The EOCP values of the 2 mm and 6 mm deformed samples are −240 mV and −280 mV, respectively. It is observed that as the deformation increases from 2mm to 6mm, the EOCP shifts towards more negative values, indicating that the surface passivation film of the 2 mm deformed sample is denser and has a stronger protective effect. It is particularly noteworthy that when the intermittent deformation is small (2 mm), the sample exhibits the highest EOCP and Epit, as well as the lowest ipas (Table 3), indicating that its passivation film has the best stability in the deformed sample. This phenomenon, which seems to contradict the common sense that deformation usually accelerates corrosion, actually reveals the conditional dependence and underlying mechanism of deformation on corrosion behavior. This study suggests that moderate intermittent deformation (2 mm) optimizes the microstructure through the following mechanism, thereby improving corrosion resistance: SIMT is controllable, and as shown in the PH diagram, the martensite content is lower (62.2%) and evenly distributed after 2 mm deformation. This reduces the formation of a large number of phase boundaries between the hard and brittle martensitic phase and the austenitic matrix, which are usually the preferred nucleation sites for pitting corrosion [18,19]. The uniform two-phase distribution also reduces the driving force of microelectrochemical corrosion. Weak texture tendency: The IPF image shows that the grain orientation distribution after 2 mm deformation is relatively random, with no obvious strong texture. Strong processing texture may lead to differences in the growth rate and stability of passivation films on grains with different orientations, thereby reducing overall corrosion resistance. Weak texture tendency helps to form a more uniform surface facial mask. The above mechanisms work together to make the microstructural changes introduced by deformation beneficial to the stability of the passivation film under moderate intermittent deformation, thereby improving corrosion resistance. However, as the amount of deformation increases (such as a single break or 6mm intermittent deformation), the degree of SIMT intensifies (with a martensite content of up to 86.8%), the texture strengthening effect is significant, and the density of defects, such as dislocation, pile up, and microcracks, increases sharply. These factors collectively lead to severe damage to the passivation film, a significant increase in corrosion current density (icor), a decrease in pitting potential (Epit), and an increase in corrosion sensitivity.
With the increase in intermittent deformation, the corrosion potential gradually shifts negatively. After multiple intermittent stretches of 6 mm and 2 mm, the corrosion potential decreases to −236.99 mV and −221.88 mV, respectively. The corresponding corrosion current density increases to 1.122 nA/cm2 and 1.002 nA/cm2, indicating that the surface passivation film is beginning to be damaged and the corrosion trend is increasing. In a sample stretched to fracture, its corrosion behavior significantly deteriorates: the corrosion potential drops sharply to −267.8 mV, and the corrosion current density increases to 1.259 nA/cm2, showing a very high corrosion rate. At the same time, the pitting potential decreases to −23.73 mV. Materials are more prone to local breakdown from corrosion. In contrast, multiple intermittent stretching forms help to optimize the passivation film structure, thereby improving the corrosion resistance of the material.
The above comprehensive analysis shows the comprehensive effects of multiple intermittent tensile deformations (2 mm~6 mm) on the mechanical properties, microstructure, and corrosion behavior of 304 stainless steel. The results indicate that deformation, as a key process parameter, significantly affects the macroscopic properties of materials by regulating microstructural evolution, and there is a complex coupling relationship between mechanical properties and corrosion properties.

4. Discussion

When subjected to intermittent deformation under different conditions, the specimen exhibits the best comprehensive mechanical properties under the 2 mm intermittent deformation condition, especially exhibiting the highest tensile strength (878.3 MPa) and fracture elongation (0.783). EBSD analysis shows that SIMT is relatively weak under this deformation, and the alternating austenite and martensite structures in the material are evenly distributed (PH diagram). Analysis suggests that the excellent plasticity caused by small intermittent deformations is due to two factors: firstly, moderate plastic deformation itself provides work hardening; secondly, the intermittent period may trigger a dynamic recovery process. During the stretching pause, dislocations have the opportunity to undergo short-range slip and rearrangement, partially offsetting dislocation pile-up and reducing internal stress concentration, thereby improving the material’s uniform deformation ability and elongation [20,21,22]. This stress homogenization effect, combined with moderate work hardening, enhances the material’s strength and tensile strength, while significantly increasing its fracture elongation. In addition, the IPF diagram shows that the grain orientation distribution in this state is relatively random, with no obvious strong texture, and the alternating austenite and martensite structures are evenly distributed, which is also conducive to maintaining good isotropic plasticity. The above reasons make stainless steel exhibit good tensile properties.
As the intermittent deformation decreases, the yield strength of the sample increases. The EBSD results clearly reveal its strengthening roots: significant SIMT (PH diagram shows mainly martensite) and strong processing texture formation (IPF diagram shows banded areas of the same color). Martensite (body-centered cubic or body-centered tetragonal structure) itself has much higher hardness and strength than austenite (face-centered cubic structure). At the same time, under large deformation, the grains are highly oriented along the tensile direction (forming texture), further hindering dislocation movement and producing a strong texture-strengthening effect. The phenomenon of blurred or even finer-grain contours and dense bands in the BC diagram also implies extremely high dislocation density and complex substructures, which are important work-hardening mechanisms. The mechanical properties under intermittent deformation of 3 mm and 4 mm reflect the transitional evolution of the microstructure. As the deformation increases, SIMT gradually strengthens (with more martensite appearing at 4 mm), and the work-hardening effect gradually becomes apparent. However, at the same time, the advantage of dynamic recovery may weaken, and tissue heterogeneity (such as orientation consistency changes in IPF diagrams) may lead to fluctuations or insignificant improvements in performance. The BC image of the 4 mm sample shows a large number of substructures and obvious band deformation inside the grain, indicating that it is in an active stage of dislocation cell structure formation and evolution. The large intermittent deformation, high martensite content, and strong texture also lead to an increase in material brittleness, resulting in a decrease in the fracture elongation of the material relative to the 2 mm deformation at larger intermittent deformation. The EBSD results (IPF, PH plot) clearly indicate that cumulative deformation is the core factor driving microstructural evolution. With the increase in intermittent stretching deformation, SIMT is significantly enhanced, and the grain orientation gradually converges from a relatively random distribution, ultimately forming a strong processing texture along the stretching direction. This evolution pattern highlights the dominant role of deformation paths (cumulative strain magnitude) in regulating phase transitions and crystallographic orientation. The essential difference between multiple intermittent loading and one continuous loading is that intermittent loading may provide a time window for lattice recovery, dislocation rearrangement, and even local recrystallization. The excellent plasticity under 2 mm deformation is the result of the synergistic effect of intermittent effects and moderate strain hardening.
The electrochemical test results not only revealed a significant influence of deformation history on the corrosion behavior but, more importantly, established a clear correlation between the deformation conditions and the pitting corrosion sensitivity of 304 stainless steel. The change in EOCP is an indicator that reflects the surface state of materials, especially the ability and stability of passivation film formation [23,24]. The lowest stable EOCP of a fractured sample directly confirms the high residual stress and microcracks caused by severe deformation, which severely damage the quality of passivation film formation and self-healing ability, thereby significantly increasing the material’s susceptibility to localized corrosion. In contrast, the passive film formed by multiple intermittent stretching processes is relatively denser and more stable (higher EOCP), which indicates that the intermittent process may be conducive to the partial release of residual stress and more uniform microstructure evolution, so that while micro-damage accumulates, a relatively better protective surface film can still be formed, resulting in lower corrosion sensitivity [25,26]. In addition, the smaller the intermittent deformation, the higher the EOCP value, indicating stronger corrosion resistance. The dynamic polarization curve shows that compared with the undeformed state, the Ecor of all deformed states has a negative shift, and the icor significantly increases. This indicates that plastic deformation has damaged the integrity and protection of the original passivation film on the surface of the material, generally increasing the uniform corrosion rate of the material. This is mainly attributed to the high-density defects (dislocations, phase boundaries, microcracks) introduced by deformation: on the one hand, the energy at the defect site is high, making it more prone to anodic dissolution; on the other hand, it disrupts the continuity of the passivation film and hinders the uniform growth of protective oxides [27,28,29]. The severe micro-damage induced by extreme deformation—characterized by numerous microcracks and extremely high residual stress—is directly evidenced by the rapid deterioration in corrosion performance of the fractured specimen, which shows the minimum Ecor and maximum icor. Among the deformed samples, the one with 2 mm deformation exhibits the lowest pitting current density and the highest pitting potential, second only to the undeformed sample. This indicates that its passive film has the highest stability and the strongest resistance to local pitting initiation among all deformed specimens. The improved performance may be attributed to the following factors: (1) Moderate deformation introduces dislocation structures or defect distributions that are favorable for the formation of the passive film [30,31]. (2) The degree of SIMT is relatively low and uniformly distributed, which avoids the formation of large amounts of brittle martensite and related phase boundaries with austenite sites that are prone to pitting initiation. It also reduces the likelihood of forming galvanic couples between the two phases. (3) The recovery process occurring during intermittent deformation helps to relieve some residual tensile stress, which is generally detrimental to corrosion resistance. As a result, under conditions of small intermittent deformation, 304 stainless steel maintains good corrosion resistance.
This study found that as the intermediate spacing increased from 2 mm to 6 mm during the intermittent tensile deformation process, the texture gradually became more obvious, the martensite content significantly increased, and the martensite was dispersed with austenite. At the same time, the sample changed from ductile fracture to brittle fracture, resulting in more cracks. Overall analysis shows that during intermittent deformation of 304 stainless steel, a smaller amount of intermittent deformation can result in better mechanical and corrosion properties of the stainless steel. Therefore, deformation, as a key process parameter for regulating the structure and properties of stainless steel, can control the microstructure by adjusting the intermittent deformation, thereby affecting the macroscopic mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the material. This study provides a theoretical reference for the formation and performance control of stainless steel materials and has certain practical value.

5. Conclusions

This article investigates the intermittent tensile deformation of 304 stainless steel under different conditions; observes the effects of different intermittent deformation amounts (2 mm~6 mm) on the microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of stainless steel; and reveals its mechanisms. This study can draw the following conclusions:
(1) The degree of intermittent deformation governs the microstructure and properties of 304 stainless steel. A lower degree of deformation leads to less martensite with a uniform distribution and weaker texture, significantly enhancing ductility and strength. Conversely, a higher degree increases martensite content and strengthens the texture. Thus, moderate intermittent deformation is key to achieving optimal comprehensive mechanical properties.
(2) After intermittent tensile deformation of 304 stainless steel, as the amount of intermittent tensile deformation increases, the sample changes from ductile fracture to brittle fracture and produces more cracks. The martensite transformation increases with the increase in intermittent deformation, while the grain orientation gradually converges and forms a distinct processing texture, resulting in the brittle fracture of the material.
(3) Different intermittent deformation variables have an impact on the corrosion performance of 304 stainless steel. When the intermittent deformation is small (2 mm), the microstructure changes induced by deformation are conducive to the formation of a passive film on stainless steel, making it more corrosion-resistant; moderate intermittent deformation is beneficial for 304 stainless steel to have good corrosion resistance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.T., Y.C. and X.W.; methodology, H.T., Y.C. and Y.H.; software, H.T., Y.C. and Z.T.; validation, X.W. and M.D.; formal analysis, H.T., Y.C. and Y.H.; investigation, H.T., X.W. and M.D.; resources, H.T., X.W. and Y.H.; writing—original draft preparation, H.T., Y.C. and Z.T.; writing—review and editing, H.T., Y.C. and Z.T.; funding acquisition, H.T., Y.H. and Z.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Nanxun Scholars Program for Young Scholars of ZJWEU (Zhejiang University of Water Resources and Electric Power, RC2022021035), the “Pioneer” and “Leading Goose” R&D Program of Zhejiang (Department of Science and Technology of Zhejiang Province, 2023C01156), and the Fundamental Commonweal Research of Zhejiang Province (Department of Science and Technology of Zhejiang Province, LGG22E050034).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The authors declare that the research did not involve human participants or animals.

References

  1. Wang, D.D. Effect of Cold Rolling Deformation on microstructure and mechanical properties of 0Cr18Ni9 austenitic stainless steel. Hot Work. Technol. 2024, 53, 84–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Zhou, L.J.; Wen, S.L.; Qi, X.; Zhang, Y. Research on process parameters of friction stir welding for 304 stainless steel. Chem. Equip. Technol. 2025, 46, 25–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Qi, Y.T.; Qin, J.J.; Liu, J.; Zhang, Y. Numerical simulation study on hot stamping of 304 stainless steel. China Met. Equip. Manuf. Technol. 2025, 60, 123–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Xu, Q.H.; Zhu, J.X.; Zong, Y.; Liu, L.; Zhu, X.; Zhang, F.; Luan, B. Effect of drawing and annealing on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 304 austenitic stainless steel wire. Mater. Res. Express 2021, 8, 126530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Tao, H.M.; Cai, Y.F.; Li, Z.; Xiu, H.; Tong, Z.; Ding, M. Research on the synergistic evolution law of microstructure and properties of deformed austenitic stainless steel. Coatings 2025, 15, 845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Xie, Q.F.; Zhang, H.X.; Wang, S.B.; Yan, Z. Research on the internal and external synergistic strengthening mechanism of fatigue performance of austenitic stainless steel. Int. J. Fatigue 2025, 197, 108948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Duan, H.Y.; Di, R.Z.; Yue, S.Q.; Gao, Y. Grain size base low cycle fatigue life prediction model for 304 austenitic stainless steel. Mater. Today Commun. 2025, 42, 111537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Yuan, Z.; Huo, S.H. The effect of the pre-strain process on the mechanical properties, microstructure, fatigue life, and fracture mode of 304 austenitic stainless steel. Journal of Materials Eng. Perform. 2023, 32, 4446–4455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Yang, W.; Shen, Y.; Chen, S.; Wang, X.; Shu, D.; Wang, H. Study of the constitutive equations of austenitic stainless steels under high strain rate loading considering phase transformation effects. JOM 2025, 77, 2875–2887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Qin, X. Hydrogen Embrittlement and Corrosion Behavior of Low-Temperature Carburized Austenitic Stainless Steel; Hydrogen Embrittlement and Corrosion Behavior of Low-Temperature Carburized Austenitic Stainless Steel-All Databases; Chalmers Tekniska Hogskola: Gothenburg, Sweden, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  11. De Oliveira, D.A.; Brito, P.P.; de Castro Magalhães, F.; Cangussu, V.M.; Azzi, P.C.; Ardisson, J.D.; da Silva Rocha, A.; Abrao, A.M. Influence of deep rolling on the a’-martensite formation in the subsurface, geometrically necessary dislocations and corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steel AISI 304. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2024, 487, 131011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Lu, Z.M.; Lin, S.K.; Liang, H.; Xu, C.; Wei, S. Effects of thermal laser shock peening on stress corrosion susceptibility of 304 stainless steel. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2024, 33, 12259–12266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Gao, Y.; Shao, F.; Fan, P.; Xu, Q.; Xie, X. Effect of internal support on the tensile properties and fracture mode of 304 stainless steel thin-walled tubes. Materials 2021, 14, 172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Sabzi, M.; Far, S.M.; Dezfuli, S.M. Characterisation of microstructure, mechanical properties and fracture mode of the dissimilar joining of AISI 304 stainless steel and DP780 dual phase steel by resistance spot welding. Int. J. Mater. Prod. Technol. 2019, 59, 3–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Lv, N.X.; Fu, A.Q.; Liu, H.W.; Lv, W.; Gao, Y.; Bai, H.; Song, S.; Yin, C.; Liang, X.; Xu, Z. Influence of oxygen partial pressure on the passivation and depassivation of super 13Cr stainless steel in high temperature and CO2 rich environment. Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 28147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Li, Q.-D.; Ran, D.; Zhai, F.-Q.; Guo, W.-H.; Gong, X.-F.; Ni, R.; Jiang, Y.; Gong, X.-L.; Dai, J.; Meng, H.-M.; et al. Effect of CO32− on the electrochemical behaviour of 14Cr12Ni3Mo2VN stainless steel in a sodium chloride solution. Int. Sci. 2020, 15, 2973–2986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Li, Q.D.; Meng, H.M.; Randou; Gong, X.; Long, B.; Ni, R.; Gong, X.; Dai, J. Research on the corrosion behavior of 14Cr12Ni3Mo2VN stainless steel in different concentrations of nacl solution. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2020, 15, 109–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Zhang, S.H.; Huang, Y.N.; Wang, Y.L. Influence of reversed austenite on the properties of a 13Cr4NiMo ultra-low carbon martensitic stainless steel in different environments. Mater. Corros. Werkst. Und Korros. 2022, 73, 358–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Man, C.; Dong, C.F.; Kong, D.C.; Wang, L.; Li, X. Beneficial effect of reversed austenite on the intergranular corrosion resistance of martensitic stainless steel. Corros. Sci. 2019, 151, 108–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Kim, J.M.; Kim, S.J.; Kang, J.H. Effects of short-range ordering and stacking fault energy on tensile behavior of nitrogen-containing austenitic stainless steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A-Struct. Mater. Prop. Microstruct. Process. 2022, 836, 142730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Meng, L.X.; Li, W.Q.; Zhang, Q.F.; Zheng, L.; Shi, Q.; Ma, J.; Liang, W.; Lu, H. Deformation behavior and fracture mechanisms of 430 ferritic stainless steel after dual-phase zone annealing via quasi in-situ tensile testing. Mater. Sci. Eng. A-Struct. Mater. Prop. Microstruct. Process. 2025, 920, 147561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Wang, W.X.; Wang, J.J.; Wang, Q.; Huang, X.; Lu, G.; Liu, Y.; Liu, C. Ferrite-austenite synergistic deformation behavior in a 2205 duplex stainless steel containing equiaxed austenite domains. Mater. Charact. 2023, 205, 113363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Ye, W.H.; Liu, P.R.; Li, D.I.; Xu, L.; Qiao, L. Effect of tensile elastic stress on the electrochemical passivation behaviour of cold-rolled 2205 duplex stainless steel. Corros. Sci. 2025, 248, 112794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Zhao, L.D.; Zang, X.M.; Pang, Q.H.; Xu, M.; Li, W.; Mo, J. Effects of pre-deformation on microstructure and corrosion resistance of 304L Cu-containing austenitic stainless steel. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2025, 34, 20212–20222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Wang, D.C.; Wu, C.L.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, C.H.; Zhang, D.X.; Sun, X.Y. Cavitation erosion and corrosion-cavitation synergism behaviour of CoCrFeNiMnTix high entropy alloy coatings prepared by laser cladding. Corros. Eng. Sci. Technol. 2023, 58, 766–774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Hu, J.Z.; Hu, X.; Geng, B.Y.; Yang, J.R. Coordination of cerium salts in electrochemical passivation of stainless steel. Equip. Environ. Eng. 2025, 22, 112–119. [Google Scholar]
  27. Gong, K.; Yang, M.S.; Liu, C.J.; Shen, X.; Xiao, L.; Li, M.; Mao, F. Synergistic effect of chloride ions and surface film on depassivation mechanism of Q355B steel in simulated concrete pore solution. J. Build. Eng. 2023, 78, 107742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Yu, K.P.; Chen, X.L.; Ye, K.Q.; Huang, M. Counterintuitive passivation role of manganese in stainless steel under high potential in neutral NaCl solution. Corros. Sci. 2025, 246, 112756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Yue, X.Q.; Larsson, A.; Tang, H.J.; Grespi, A.; Scardamaglia, M.; Shavorskiy, A.; Krishnan, A.; Lundgren, E.; Pan, J. Synchrotron-based near ambient-pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and electrochemical studies of passivation behavior of N- and V-containing martensitic stainless steel. Corros. Sci. 2023, 214, 111018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Pei, W.; Yang, S.G.; Cao, K.; Zhao, A. Effect of annealing temperature on mechanical properties and work hardening of nickel-saving stainless steel. Materials 2023, 16, 3988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Takeshita, K.; Ogawa, T.; Sun, F.; Adachi, Y. The initial grain size effect on the tensile-deformed microstructure in type 310S austenitic stainless steel. Mater. Lett. 2023, 314, 134285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Coatings 15 01158 g001
Figure 1. The 304 stainless steel tensile specimen. (a) Sample size diagram; (b) sample diagram after fracture (unit: mm).
Figure 1. The 304 stainless steel tensile specimen. (a) Sample size diagram; (b) sample diagram after fracture (unit: mm).
Coatings 15 01158 g001
Coatings 15 01158 g002
Figure 2. Experimental results of intermittent tensile deformation of 304 stainless steel under different conditions. (a) Nominal stress–strain diagram (Purple line: Intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm; Green line: Intermittent deformation amount: 3 mm; Blue line: Intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm; Red line: Intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm; Black line: Once pulled apart); (b) tensile strength variation chart; (c) yield strength variation chart; (d) fracture strain variation chart.
Figure 2. Experimental results of intermittent tensile deformation of 304 stainless steel under different conditions. (a) Nominal stress–strain diagram (Purple line: Intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm; Green line: Intermittent deformation amount: 3 mm; Blue line: Intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm; Red line: Intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm; Black line: Once pulled apart); (b) tensile strength variation chart; (c) yield strength variation chart; (d) fracture strain variation chart.
Coatings 15 01158 g002
Coatings 15 01158 g003
Figure 3. Phase diagram of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a) Undeformed. (b) Intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm. (c) Intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm. (d) Intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm. The red square area in the picture is a partial enlarged view.
Figure 3. Phase diagram of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a) Undeformed. (b) Intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm. (c) Intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm. (d) Intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm. The red square area in the picture is a partial enlarged view.
Coatings 15 01158 g003
Coatings 15 01158 g004
Figure 4. EBSD diagram of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a1–a4): BC diagram; (b1–b4): IPF diagram; (c1–c4): PH diagram. (a1,b1,c1): Undeformed; (a2,b2,c2): intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm; (a3,b3,c3): intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm; (a4,b4,c4): intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm.
Figure 4. EBSD diagram of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a1–a4): BC diagram; (b1–b4): IPF diagram; (c1–c4): PH diagram. (a1,b1,c1): Undeformed; (a2,b2,c2): intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm; (a3,b3,c3): intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm; (a4,b4,c4): intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm.
Coatings 15 01158 g004
Coatings 15 01158 g005
Figure 5. The content of martensite in 304 stainless steel is subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions.
Figure 5. The content of martensite in 304 stainless steel is subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions.
Coatings 15 01158 g005
Coatings 15 01158 g006
Figure 6. Fracture morphology of 304 stainless steel specimens subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a) Once pulled apart; (b) intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm; (c) intermittent deformation amount: 3 mm; (d) intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm; (e) intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm.
Figure 6. Fracture morphology of 304 stainless steel specimens subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a) Once pulled apart; (b) intermittent deformation amount: 2 mm; (c) intermittent deformation amount: 3 mm; (d) intermittent deformation amount: 4 mm; (e) intermittent deformation amount: 6 mm.
Coatings 15 01158 g006
Coatings 15 01158 g007
Figure 7. Electrochemical open circuit potential test results of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions.
Figure 7. Electrochemical open circuit potential test results of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions.
Coatings 15 01158 g007
Coatings 15 01158 g008
Figure 8. Electrochemical polarization test results of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a) Dynamic polarization curve; (b) changes in corrosion potential and pitting potential.
Figure 8. Electrochemical polarization test results of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions. (a) Dynamic polarization curve; (b) changes in corrosion potential and pitting potential.
Coatings 15 01158 g008
Table 1. Chemical compositions of 304 stainless steel (mass fraction/wt.%).
Table 1. Chemical compositions of 304 stainless steel (mass fraction/wt.%).
MaterialCSiMnPSCrNi
3040.070.331.130.0390.02218.098.06
Table 2. Mechanical performance parameters of intermittent tensile deformation of 304 stainless steel under different conditions in tensile experiments.
Table 2. Mechanical performance parameters of intermittent tensile deformation of 304 stainless steel under different conditions in tensile experiments.
SpecimenFracture StrainYield Strength
/MPa		Tensile Strength
/MPa
Once pulled apart0.736 ± 0.0030783.2 ± 7.1311.8 ± 6.2
6 mm0.742 ± 0.0027776.7 ± 9.3305.1 ± 5.7
4 mm0.746 ± 0.0025789.5 ± 7.1313.0 ± 4.5
3 mm0.751 ± 0.0022797.3 ± 8.2317.4 ± 3.4
2 mm0.783 ± 0.0042797.3 ± 8.2348.2 ± 5.9
Table 3. Parameters related to the dynamic polarization curve of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions.
Table 3. Parameters related to the dynamic polarization curve of 304 stainless steel subjected to intermittent tensile deformation under different conditions.
SpecimenEpit (mV)ipas (μA/cm2)Ecor (mV)icor (nA/cm2)
Undeformed−37.94 ± 2.70.199 ± 0.0008−155.94 ± 6.50.794 ± 0.0016
2mm175.98 ± 5.30.316 ± 0.0016−221.88 ± 5.11.002 ± 0.0020
6mm109.34 ± 4.50.399 ± 0.002−236.99 ± 6.91.122 ± 0.0020
Once pulled apart−23.73 ± 2.60.501 ± 0.004−267.80 ± 7.41.259 ± 0.0024
Note: Epit: pitting potential, ipas: pitting current density, Ecor: corrosion potential, icor: corrosion current density.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Tao, H.; Cai, Y.; Huang, Y.; Wu, X.; Tong, Z.; Ding, M. Research on Intermittent Tensile Deformation to Improve the Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel. Coatings 2025, 15, 1158. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15101158

AMA Style

Tao H, Cai Y, Huang Y, Wu X, Tong Z, Ding M. Research on Intermittent Tensile Deformation to Improve the Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel. Coatings. 2025; 15(10):1158. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15101158

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tao, Huimin, Yafang Cai, Yong Huang, Xiaoliang Wu, Zeqi Tong, and Mingming Ding. 2025. "Research on Intermittent Tensile Deformation to Improve the Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel" Coatings 15, no. 10: 1158. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15101158

APA Style

Tao, H., Cai, Y., Huang, Y., Wu, X., Tong, Z., & Ding, M. (2025). Research on Intermittent Tensile Deformation to Improve the Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel. Coatings, 15(10), 1158. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15101158

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop