Increase in Antibiotic Utilisation in Primary Care Post COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
3. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
4. Methods
4.1. Data Source and Study Population
4.2. Determining Quality of Antibiotic Use: Diagnosis Categorisation and AWaRE Classification
4.3. Determining Quantity of Antibiotic Use: NTI, DID, and Heatmap Visualisation
4.4. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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2022 | 2023 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
N (%) | Prescription Rate, % | N (%) | Prescription Rate, % | |
Total prescriptions | 38,920 (100.0) | 3.50 | 42,613 (100.0) | 4.01 |
Age, Mean (SD) | 47.2 (22.4) | - | 47.3 (23.3) | - |
Age, Median (IQR) | 50 (38) | - | 51 (39) | - |
Age group | ||||
0–17 | 3147 (8.1) | 2.35 | 4604 (10.8) | 3.55 |
18–20 | 1791 (4.6) | 4.90 | 1696 (4.0) | 6.30 |
21–44 | 12,356 (31.7) | 4.99 | 12,217 (28.7) | 5.91 |
45–54 | 5121 (13.2) | 3.71 | 5265 (12.4) | 4.13 |
55–64 | 6376 (16.4) | 3.01 | 7089 (16.6) | 3.44 |
65–74 | 6220 (16.0) | 2.85 | 6865 (16.1) | 3.05 |
≥75 | 3909 (10.0) | 3.09 | 4877 (11.4) | 3.45 |
Gender | ||||
Male | 17,476 (44.9) | 3.14 | 19,631 (46.1) | 3.73 |
Female | 21,444 (55.1) | 3.86 | 22,982 (53.9) | 4.28 |
Race | ||||
Chinese | 26,000 (66.8) | 3.39 | 28,773 (67.5) | 3.83 |
Malay | 5979 (15.4) | 3.36 | 6373 (15.0) | 4.09 |
Indian | 4189 (10.8) | 4.30 | 4534 (10.6) | 4.95 |
Others | 2752 (7.07) | 3.87 | 2933 (6.88) | 4.50 |
Polyclinic | ||||
Clinic A | 6733 (17.3) | 3.43 | 7803 (18.3) | 4.01 |
Clinic B | 5124 (13.2) | 3.05 | 4423 (10.4) | 3.26 |
Clinic C | 7092 (18.2) | 4.09 | 6527 (15.3) | 4.33 |
Clinic D | 5626 (14.5) | 3.19 | 6710 (15.7) | 3.51 |
Clinic E | 7122 (18.3) | 4.20 | 9199 (21.6) | 5.46 |
Clinic F | 4284 (11.0) | 3.51 | 4071 (9.55) | 3.54 |
Clinic G | 2939 (7.55) | 2.76 | 3880 (9.11) | 3.60 |
Visit Type | ||||
Acute | 25,645 (65.9) | 5.75 | 28,634 (67.2) | 7.29 |
Chronic | 13,275 (34.1) | 1.99 | 13,981 (32.8) | 2.08 |
Conditions | 2022 | 2023 | Total | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No of Antibiotic Prescriptions, (%) | % Visits Prescribed Antibiotics | No of Antibiotic Prescriptions, (%) | % Visits Prescribed Antibiotics | No of Antibiotic Prescriptions, (%) | % Visits Prescribed Antibiotics | |
Skin and Soft Tissue | 13,562 (34.8%) | 11.3 | 12,471 (29.3%) | 10.4 | 26,033 (31.9%) | 10.8 |
Disorder of skin and subcutaneous tissues | 4058 (50.4%) | 9.88 | 3118 (44%) | 9.02 | 7176 (47.4%) | 9.49 |
Cellulitis | 2812 (34.9%) | 73.9 | 2885 (40.7%) | 71.3 | 5697 (37.6%) | 72.5 |
Abscess | 1179 (14.7%) | 48.0 | 1083 (15.3%) | 47.7 | 2262 (15%) | 47.9 |
Respiratory | 7034 (18.1%) | 3.36 | 11,834 (27.8%) | 5.46 | 18,868 (23.1%) | 4.42 |
Acute upper respiratory tract infection | 5650 (79.1%) | 3.25 | 9296 (77.0%) | 5.30 | 14,946 (77.8%) | 4.28 |
Pneumonia | 365 (5.11%) | 53.2 | 977 (8.09%) | 59.4 | 1342 (6.98%) | 57.6 |
Disorder of respiratory system | 391 (5.47%) | 12.1 | 590 (4.89%) | 17.6 | 981 (5.11%) | 14.9 |
Genitourinary | 7094 (18.2%) | 29.7 | 6588 (15.5%) | 29.7 | 13,682 (16.8%) | 29.7 |
Urinary tract infection | 6007 (94.3%) | 78.8 | 5526 (94.2%) | 76.1 | 11,533 (94.3%) | 77.4 |
Disorder of female genital organs | 223 (3.5%) | 12.2 | 159 (2.71%) | 11.6 | 382 (3.12%) | 12.0 |
Urinary disorder | 142 (2.23%) | 15.3 | 180 (3.07%) | 14.1 | 322 (2.63%) | 14.6 |
Ear, Nose, and Throat | 2272 (5.84%) | 8.83 | 3046 (7.15%) | 10.7 | 5318 (6.52%) | 9.81 |
Disorder of ear | 659 (52.9%) | 12.3 | 619 (36.8%) | 12.3 | 1278 (43.6%) | 12.3 |
Acute tonsillitis | 256 (20.5%) | 83.1 | 686 (40.8%) | 81.2 | 942 (32.2%) | 81.7 |
Otitis media | 332 (26.6%) | 58.2 | 378 (22.5%) | 55.8 | 710 (24.2%) | 56.9 |
Eye | 853 (2.19%) | 2.65 | 804 (1.9%) | 2.53 | 1657 (2.03%) | 2.59 |
Disorder of eyelid | 452 (66.7%) | 13.3 | 341 (56.6%) | 13.1 | 793 (61.9%) | 13.2 |
Disorder of eye | 183 (27%) | 1.13 | 129 (21.4%) | 0.832 | 312 (24.4%) | 0.986 |
Conjunctivitis | 43 (6.34%) | 1.68 | 133 (22.1%) | 3.51 | 176 (13.7%) | 2.77 |
Gastrointestinal | 724 (1.86%) | 0.737 | 699 (1.64%) | 0.865 | 1423 (1.75%) | 0.795 |
Gastroenteritis, acute | 315 (58.3%) | 1.04 | 354 (67.3%) | 1.49 | 669 (62.8%) | 1.24 |
Abdominal pain | 172 (31.9%) | 2.53 | 120 (22.8%) | 2.29 | 292 (27.4%) | 2.42 |
Anorectal abscess | 53 (9.81%) | 62.4 | 52 (9.89%) | 64.2 | 105 (9.85%) | 63.3 |
Dental | 706 (1.81%) | 12.7 | 623 (1.46%) | 12.2 | 1329 (1.63%) | 12.5 |
Infectious diseases | 154 (0.396%) | 1.03 | 216 (0.507%) | 2.17 | 370 (0.454%) | 1.48 |
Multiple Diagnoses | 827 (2.12%) | - | 1244 (2.92%) | - | 2071 (2.54%) | - |
Undefined | 5694 (14.6%) | - | 5088 (11.9%) | - | 10,782 (13.2%) | - |
Absolute Change | Relative Change | Average Monthly Change (95% CI) | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Number of antibiotics dispensed/1000 inhabitants (NTI) | ||||
Total | 0.56 | 21.33% | 0.030 (0.015, 0.045) | <0.001 |
Access | 0.39 | 15.74% | 0.026 (0.013, 0.039) | <0.001 |
Watch | 0.17 | 101.54% | 0.004 (0.001, 0.007) | 0.009 |
Number of Defined Daily Doses (DDD)/1000 inhabitants/day (DID) | ||||
Total | 0.55 | 53.51% | 0.024 (−0.014, 0.062) | 0.206 |
Access | 0.48 | 48.72% | 0.022 (−0.015, 0.060) | 0.231 |
Watch | 0.068 | 174.72% | 0.001 (0.0003, 0.003) | 0.014 |
Baseline Trend in 2022 (β1) | Level Change in 2023 (β2) | Trend Change in 2023 (β3) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of antibiotics dispensed/1000 inhabitants (NTI) | ||||||
B (95% CI) | p | B (95% CI) | p | B (95% CI) | p | |
Total | 0.07 (0.03–0.11) | 0.001 | −0.39 (−0.78–−0.007) | 0.05 | −0.04 (−0.09–0.02) | 0.17 |
Access | 0.06 (0.02–0.09) | 0.006 | −0.26 (−0.62–0.1) | 0.15 | −0.03 (−0.08–0.03) | 0.29 |
Watch | 0.02 (0.01–0.02) | <0.001 | −0.13 (−0.19–−0.07) | <0.001 | −0.01 (−0.02–−0.002) | 0.02 |
Number of Defined Daily Doses (DDD)/1000 inhabitants/day (DID) | ||||||
B (95% CI) | p | B (95% CI) | p | B (95% CI) | p | |
Total | 0.11 (0.003–0.21) | 0.045 | −0.59 (−1.63–0.44) | 0.25 | −0.1 (−0.25–0.05) | 0.18 |
Access | 0.1 (−0.004–0.21) | 0.06 | −0.55 (−1.59–0.49) | 0.28 | −0.1 (−0.25–0.05) | 0.2 |
Watch | 0.006 (0.004–0.008) | <0.001 | 0.04 (−0.07–−0.02) | <0.001 | −0.004 (−0.007–−0.001) | 0.01 |
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Koh, S.W.C.; Low, S.H.; Goh, J.C.; Hsu, L.Y. Increase in Antibiotic Utilisation in Primary Care Post COVID-19 Pandemic. Antibiotics 2025, 14, 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14030309
Koh SWC, Low SH, Goh JC, Hsu LY. Increase in Antibiotic Utilisation in Primary Care Post COVID-19 Pandemic. Antibiotics. 2025; 14(3):309. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14030309
Chicago/Turabian StyleKoh, Sky Wei Chee, Si Hui Low, Jun Cong Goh, and Li Yang Hsu. 2025. "Increase in Antibiotic Utilisation in Primary Care Post COVID-19 Pandemic" Antibiotics 14, no. 3: 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14030309
APA StyleKoh, S. W. C., Low, S. H., Goh, J. C., & Hsu, L. Y. (2025). Increase in Antibiotic Utilisation in Primary Care Post COVID-19 Pandemic. Antibiotics, 14(3), 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14030309