Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions for Managing Parasites, Vectors and Pests
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Micro- and Nanoemulsions
- (i)
- The SOR and relative concentrations; they influence the interfacial tension. It is not possible to stabilize a fixed relationship between these parameters because they are strictly related to the nature of the compounds that confer unique properties to the systems, which, in turn, differ from each other.
- (ii)
- The ionic strength of the dispersion medium; it affects the repulsive forces between the droplets of the dispersed phase. As the ionic strength increases, the repulsive forces decrease and the systems will be prone to instability.
- (iii)
- The solubility of the dispersed phase; it allows droplets to move towards the continuous phase with the appearance of Ostwald ripening.
- (iv)
- The temperature; it affects the solubility with the above-mentioned consequences. Moreover, it influences the energy balance of the system as well.
1.2. Applications
2. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions
3. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions as Insecticides
3.1. Hemiptera
3.2. Mosquitoes
3.3. Stored Product Beetles
4. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions as Insect and Tick Repellents
5. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions as Acaricides
6. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions for Developing Antiparasitic Drugs
6.1. Parasitic Protozoa
6.1.1. Toxoplasma gondii
6.1.2. Leishmania spp.
6.1.3. Plasmodium spp.
6.2. Helminths
Echinococcus granulosus
7. Green Formulations against Nematodes Attacking Plants
Meloidogyne spp.
8. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions in the Real World
9. Regulatory Remarks
10. Conclusions and Key Challenges for Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Pavoni, L.; Pavela, R.; Cespi, M.; Bonacucina, G.; Maggi, F.; Zeni, V.; Canale, A.; Lucchi, A.; Bruschi, F.; Benelli, G. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions for Managing Parasites, Vectors and Pests. Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 1285. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano9091285
Pavoni L, Pavela R, Cespi M, Bonacucina G, Maggi F, Zeni V, Canale A, Lucchi A, Bruschi F, Benelli G. Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions for Managing Parasites, Vectors and Pests. Nanomaterials. 2019; 9(9):1285. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano9091285
Chicago/Turabian StylePavoni, Lucia, Roman Pavela, Marco Cespi, Giulia Bonacucina, Filippo Maggi, Valeria Zeni, Angelo Canale, Andrea Lucchi, Fabrizio Bruschi, and Giovanni Benelli. 2019. "Green Micro- and Nanoemulsions for Managing Parasites, Vectors and Pests" Nanomaterials 9, no. 9: 1285. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano9091285