Next Article in Journal
Nasal Spray Disinfectant for Respiratory Infections Based on Functionalized Silver Nanoparticles: A Physicochemical and Docking Approach
Previous Article in Journal
Three-Dimensional High-Resolution Laser Lithography of CsPbBr3 Quantum Dots in Photoresist with Sub-100 nm Feature Size
Previous Article in Special Issue
Development and Performance Study of Continuous Oil–Water Separation Device Based on Superhydrophobic/Oleophilic Mesh
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Nanomaterials
Volume 15
Issue 7
10.3390/nano15070532
nanomaterials-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Rational Design of Nanostructured Porous and Advanced Getter Materials for Vacuum Insulation Panels

by
Juan Wang
1,
Zhibin Pei
2,* and
Ningning Zhou
3,*
1
School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Hefei Technology College, Hefei 230012, China
2
Materials Department, Advanced Research Center, Hefei Hualing Co., Ltd., Hefei 230000, China
3
Key Laboratory of Materials and Technologies for Advanced Batteries, School of Energy, Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hefei University, Hefei 230601, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(7), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070532
Submission received: 5 March 2025 / Revised: 23 March 2025 / Accepted: 27 March 2025 / Published: 31 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Nanomaterials: Preparation, Performance, and Practical Application)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) have emerged as a cutting-edge strategy for achieving superior thermal insulation across a wide range of applications, including refrigerators, cold-chain transportation and building envelopes. The key factor for the exceptional performance of VIPs is maintaining an ultralow pressure environment within the panels, which is crucial for minimizing heat transfer. However, the presence of non-condensable gases can compromise the vacuum state, leading to a reduced insulation effectiveness during a panel’s service life. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of getter materials used in VIPs, focusing on their fundamental properties, types, integration techniques and performance characteristics, further emphasizing the challenges and potential directions for the development of getter materials. Overall, this review intends to provide novel insights into the development of getter materials for use in VIPs, offering essential viewpoints to aid future studies on this topic.

1. Introduction

Refrigerators are one of the most prevalent household appliances, and their energy consumption makes up a significant amount of the overall household energy use, which is concerning given the growing concerns about global climate change and the growing emphasis on energy conservation. It is crucial to reduce energy consumption and mitigate environmental impact to improve the thermal insulation performance of refrigerators. Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) with exceptional thermal resistance and compact sizes have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance the energy efficiency of refrigerators [1,2,3]. The long-term reliability of VIPs is essential for maintaining the energy efficiency and performance of refrigerators over time [4,5]. VIPs depend on the vacuum environment to minimize heat transfer; thus, any breach in the vacuum can lead to a significant decrease in their insulating properties, leading to increase heat transfer and reduce energy efficiency [6,7,8,9,10]. Figure 1a displays the thermal transport properties of VIPs across varying core materials and gas pressure regimes. The thermal conductivity curve reveals three distinct regimes governed by different heat transfer mechanisms. In the high-pressure regime (>104 Pa), thermal conductivity remains pressure-independent due to the dominance of gas-phase conduction. A transitional regime (102–104 Pa) exhibits a steep conductivity reduction, primarily attributed to diminished gas convection effects. Below the critical threshold of 100 Pa, thermal conductivity stabilizes at remarkably low values (2–8 mW/(m·K)), where solid-phase conduction through the core matrix and radiative transfer become predominant. The inflection region between 5 and 100 Pa represents the operational pressure window for optimal VIP performance, as further vacuum enhancement (<100 Pa) provides diminishing returns in thermal resistance improvement [10,11,12,13,14]. Therefore, the retention of continuous vacuum integrity within the core structure is conserved to be a fundamental prerequisite for preserving the long-term thermal resistance properties of VIPs, especially in refrigeration applications involving decades of service reliability.
The VIP is characterized by a sandwich structure (Figure 1b). The main components consist of inner core materials, a multilayer envelope and getters. A deterioration in a panel’s long-term reliability performance is linked to the degradation of the vacuum degree, which can be attributed to the internal gases [4,15,16,17,18]. The gas sources primarily include residual air trapped during manufacturing, material outgassing (particularly from uncured components or volatile compounds accelerated by thermal aging), external gas permeation through micro-defects in barrier films and gas ingress via sealing imperfections (Figure 1b) [19,20]. Several strategies have been put forward to reduce the amount of gas in VIPs, including employing high-quality impermeable barrier materials [4,21,22,23,24,25,26], robust sealing techniques [27,28] and the inclusion of getters to absorb residual gases or outgassing from the panel materials [14,29,30,31]. While barrier films and sealing techniques address external gas ingress, internal gas generation from material outgassing and residual production artifacts necessitates complementary mitigation strategies. This challenge has catalyzed significant advances in functional getter materials capable of actively scavenging reactive gas species, forming the cornerstone of modern VIP longevity.
Advanced getter systems serve as an essential gas scavenger to uphold a high vacuum integrity in VIPs, significantly extending service lifetimes and ensuring ultra-low thermal conductivity [31,32,33]. At present, tremendous efforts have been devoted to improving the performance of getters, which can be categorized into three types: (1) Nanostructured getter materials are designed to provide many catalytic active sites for promoting the conversion kinetics, capturing gas molecules to the maximum extent [29,34,35,36]. (2) Alloyed materials are utilized to mitigate the diffusion of gas atoms on the material surface through chemical adsorption [11,30,37]; (3) the electrochemical method, a safer approach, has been introduced to enhance gas adsorption kinetics [38]. The above-mentioned methods are not used independently, usually requiring a combination of several methods. Even, it is still challenging to find highly active and cost-effective getter materials for mass production.
As we know, the escalating global demand for energy-efficient thermal management systems necessitates VIPs with multi-decadal service reliability. Nevertheless, comprehensive studies addressing the fundamental challenges have yet to be conclusively established in the literature. The fundamental challenges facing getter materials for prolonged VIP serviceability are as follows: (1) mechanistic understanding of gas sorption dynamics, (2) robust frameworks for lifetime performance prediction, and (3) systematic techno-economic assessments of novel getter materials. Our review comprehensively addresses these challenges through a synergistic integration of breakthroughs in gas-material interface physics, catalytic reaction pathways, and scalable synthesis strategies for advanced nanomaterials. This review commences with an examination of getter applications in VIPs, followed by a discussion of their prospective advantages in physicochemical mechanisms. We systematically evaluate recent advancements in getter material development for VIP applications, concluding with a critical assessment of current challenges and future research directions for next-generation getter systems. We believe that this review can provide useful insights for the rational design of a highly efficient getter material, further push forward the practical applications of VIPs.

2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Getter

The lifespan and performance of VIPs are intrinsically linked to the internal residual gas pressure and composition. The gas within VIPs originates from four pathways: (1) the substantial source is the residual air entrapped through the production process. Although many efforts have been made to evacuate the panel to a high vacuum, a residual quantity of air may persist, contributing to the initial gas load. (2) Undesired outgassing occurs from the component materials of VIPs over time, especially if the materials contain volatile compounds or are not fully cured. This outgassing can be exacerbated by temperature fluctuations and the materials aging. (3) Another gas source is permeable external gases. Despite being equipped with high-quality barrier films, it may exist tiny defects or pores enable air to permeate into sealed envelope materials to weaken the vacuum degree. (4) The sealing process can introduce gases into the VIP. If the seals are not entirely airtight or if there are defects in the sealing materials, air can leak into the panel, compromising the vacuum. These gas infiltration mechanisms collectively determine the thermodynamic environment within VIPs, where the gas composition critically influences thermal performance. Different gaseous species exhibit distinct thermophysical properties. There is a direct correlation between the types of residual gases (e.g., H2, H2O, CO2) and their partial pressures and vacuum degradation kinetics [14,39]. For instance, H2 has a thermal conductivity of 0.18 W/(m·K), which is approximately 7 times higher than that of air at 0.026 W/(m·K) [40]. Such disproportionate impacts stem from the quantum tunneling effect in H2 diffusion and its non-adiabatic interactions with core materials [41,42]. Thus, the accurate identification of the composition of residual gas within VIPs is an essential requirement to optimize designed materials and prolong the service life of panels, maintaining long-term thermal efficiency.
Quadrupole mass spectrometers are widely employed for residual gas analysis in high- and ultrahigh-vacuum environments, enabling a precise identification of gas species and the measurement of partial pressures ranging from 10−4 to 10−11 Pa [43,44]. Table 1 shows the main compositions of residual gases measured by quadrupole mass spectrometers. The residual gases within VIPs, particularly atmospheric constituents (e.g., N2, O2, H2O, and Ar), originate from three primary pathways: (1) gradual diffusion through the gas barrier envelope during service life, (2) retained gas molecules from incomplete vacuum extraction during manufacturing processes, and (3) the progressive release of adsorbed air layers from the core material’s porous surface structure [14,45]. H2 is likely derived from the breakdown of H2O due to permeation and diffusion processes within the gas barrier laminate, as well as from the degradation of organic substances [14,46]. Hydrocarbon species (CxHy) and compounds are predominantly sourced from the degradation of organics present in the gas barrier laminate and the core material, for example, the adhesive used to bond the gas barrier laminate or the sizing agent applied to the glass fiber surface [14,35]. The generation of CO and CO2 primarily stems from oxidation reactions between O2 and carbon-bearing components within VIPs, and the decomposition processes of organic materials under vacuum conditions [34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,47]. This elevated H2 pressure may be mechanistically linked to the CO2 generation process, potentially through competitive adsorption–desorption equilibria or secondary reduction reactions involving carbon-containing species at material interfaces [48]. Although qualitative analysis provides preliminary insights into gas species identification, the quantitative analysis of residual gases within VIPs is still a significant technical challenge. Achieving accurate in situ detection and precise quantification of residual gas composition and concentration remains a critical direction for future research and technological advancement. Further development of advanced analytical methodologies is essential to address the complexities of gas phase interactions, aging mechanisms, and long-term performance evaluation in VIP systems.
The key to eliminating these residual gases is choosing the appropriate getter. The getters fitted in VIPs can effectively capture and fix the free residual gases through adsorption and reactions to maintain high-vacuum systems, thereby extending the lifespan of vacuum products [49]. The gas-capturing mechanisms of the getters can generally be classified into three categories. The first category is physical adsorbents characterized by substantial specific surface areas and hierarchically porous structures. These adsorbents exhibit selective adsorption capabilities toward gas molecules of differential kinetic diameters, which are primarily governed by their extensive surface interactions and microporous confinement effects. The adsorption process is facilitated by van der Waals interactions, allowing for efficient molecular trapping within their potential energy wells [50,51]. These forces are also evident in the interactions between atoms or molecules. Activated carbon and molecular sieves are prevalent materials utilized for physical adsorption [36,52,53]. The second type includes chemical getters that engage in regulated chemical reactions with adsorbed gaseous species. These systems primarily consist of transition metal oxides that employ their inherent chemical reactivity to interact with residual gases through stoichiometric reactions, thereby promoting effective outgassing [54]. According to the reported literature, representative chemical getters include CuO, AgO, and CaO [55,56,57,58]. The third classification involves physicochemical getters that combine physical adsorption and chemical absorption mechanisms. These materials initially sequester gas molecules through physisorption at the surface, subsequently causing molecular dissociation into atomic species. Then, atomic diffusion into the bulk matrix occurs through a temperature-dependent process governed by the crystallographic structure and Fickian diffusion parameters of the getters [30]. The zirconium–vanadium––iron (Zr-V-Fe) alloys and barium–lithium (Ba-Li) intermetallic compounds are extensively studied due to their synergistic adsorption–absorption capabilities [30,59,60,61].

3. Design Strategy for Getters in VIPs

The high-vacuum environment within VIPs is necessary for maintaining the thermal insulation performance. An ideal getter material for VIPs must balance a high sorption performance with physical, chemical and economic factors to guarantee the efficiency, durability and cost effectiveness of the VIP. Given these issues, the creation of innovative materials with suitable structures is an industrial challenge to enhance absorption capacity of the getter. The following approaches can be considered.

3.1. Nanostructured Materials

Porous nanostructured materials offer a remarkable specific surface area, which facilitates abundant adsorption sites to significantly enhance gas adsorption capacity, improving the gas absorption efficiency of the getter. Typical materials, such as activated carbon [35,36] and zeolites [27,29,53], achieve specific surface areas ranging from 1000 to 10,000 m2/g, rendering them widely employed as getters.
Carbon materials, recognized as a class of porous materials widely utilized in various applications, are characterized by an extensively developed porous architecture and an exceptionally high specific surface area. Yu et al. [36] used activated carbon as a getter to offer strong adsorption for H2O, proving to be a promising storage medium for alkenes, hydrocarbons and H2. Zheng et al. [35] developed a carbon-based getter for glass fiber core VIPs. The activated carbon sample is subjected to the surface modification using transitional metal doping, which was then mixed with an equivalent mass of expanded graphite (ENG) to form the getter (JMU-01) (Figure 2a). A control sample was prepared by combining the commercial desiccant with lithium–barium alloy composite getter (SAT-01) (Figure 2b). Both samples exhibit a comparable initial thermal conductivity (~2.45 mW/(m·K) at 15 °C) and nearly identical temperature-dependent behavior within the operational range of 15–60 °C (Figure 2c). However, compared to SAT-01, the hierarchically porous carbon-based composite demonstrates a superior hydrocarbon adsorption capacity, achieving maximum adsorption increments of 242.42%, 272.65% and 85.24% for ethylene, propylene and hydrogen, respectively (Figure 2d–f). Efficient gas scavenging is critical to mitigate vacuum degradation caused by outgassing. Carbon-based getters with improved selectivity for hydrocarbon positions are regarded as promising candidates for next-generation bio-based core materials, aligning with sustainability objectives [62,63,64,65].
Nanostructured materials offer notable advantages including tunable pore architecture and molecular selectivity. The getters designed demonstrate selective adsorption capabilities for target gas species through surface functionalization and the precise modulation of pore dimensions (micropores: <2 nm, mesopores: 2–50 nm, macropores: >50 nm). For instance, zeolite molecular sieves have precisely engineered pore architectures (0.3–1.0 nm), enabling molecular discrimination through the size-selective adsorption of small gas molecules [66]. In a comparative analysis by Yamamoto et al. [29,53], two zeolite-based getters (designated as Getter1 and Getter2) were evaluated for their adsorption performance in VIPs. The photo of a zeolite getter in Figure 3a demonstrates the granular variant employing binder-assisted granulation to improve processability. The absorption efficiency of Getter2 under low-pressure conditions is higher than that of Getter1, indicating an enhanced gas adsorption capacity, mainly due to structural variations in its framework topology. Notably, Getter2 exhibits a lower initial thermal conductivity (1.3 mW/(m·K) than 2.2 mW/(m·K) of Getter1 at 20 °C) and enhanced long-term reliability (Figure 3b). Araki et al. [27] performed comparative validation studies on the conventional molecular sieve 13X (MS13X) and a hydrophobic synthetic zeolite (HiSiv™). The HiSiv™-based getter showed a superior adsorption efficiency under accelerated aging at 105 °C compared to its MS13X counterpart. This differential performance stems primarily from HiSiv™’s engineered features of hydrophobic surface modification and hierarchical pore architecture, which mitigate competitive water vapor adsorption. Zeolite-based getters with precisely engineered characteristics (e.g., controlled hydrophobicity, optimized pore geometry, and surface functionalization) can be systematically developed to align with transient gas emission patterns in VIP systems. Such material optimization pathways not only enhance thermal performance but also extend service lifetimes by 30–50%, addressing a key bottleneck in next-generation VIP applications ranging from building insulation to low-temperature supply chain applications [1,67].
Nanostructure engineering enables gas adsorption in porous materials, where the adsorption properties of these materials are mainly described by the Langmuir model of monolayer adsorption [34,68,69]. Under this model, adsorption occurs primarily physical interaction between gas molecules and adsorbent surfaces. However, such physisorption mechanisms are insufficient for essential atmospheric components (N2 and O2), which fail to fulfill the criteria of the optimal adsorption state. The systematic development of enhanced chemisorption capabilities consequently emerges as a critical research frontier. Di et al. [12] synthesized a composite getter comprising nano-active CaO and CuO, as shown in Figure 4a,b. The CaO component rapidly adsorbs residual H2O and CO2 in VIPs, while CuO catalytically oxidizes H2 and CO into H2O and CO2, which CaO subsequently sequesters. The CaO component actively scavenges H2O through hydration (CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2) and CO2 via carbonation (CaO + CO2 → CaCO3), while the CuO/Cu2O redox pair synergistically catalyze H2 oxidation (2H2 + O2 → 2H2O), effectively mitigating hydrogen-induced VIP degradation [12,70]. When integrated into glass fiber-core VIPs, the composite getter exhibits a lower initial thermal conductivity than conventional systems, achieving a superior long-term performance (Figure 4c). Their service life has been dramatically improved to 10–15 years, which can support their application in refrigeration and cryogenics. Similarly, transition metal oxides, such as cerium oxide (CeO2) and cobalt oxide (Co3O4), have emerged as attractive getter materials, which have gained increasing attention due to their abundant availability, tunable surface chemistry and unique catalytic activity towards gas adsorption [14,45,71]. In particular, the variable oxidation states and surface defect structures of transition metal oxides enable the effective chemisorption of residual gases (e.g., O2, N2, and H2O) through redox reactions, which is crucial for maintaining long-term vacuum stability in thermal insulation applications. Based on their previous results, Di et al. [14] introduced a novel composite getter comprising CaO and CeO2 (CAU-1) (Figure 4d), in which the VIP samples were fabricated using hybrid encapsulations and a core composed of chopped fiberglass strands. After a period of 2 years, the VIPs containing the CAU-1 getter exhibited an increased thermal conductivity of 1.2 mW/(m·K) (Figure 4e). Accelerated aging simulations projected an increase in the VIP center-of-panel thermal conductivity to 15 mW/(m·K) after 25 years. In short, they pioneered a dual-function getter system combining chemisorption (CaO) and catalytic conversion (Cu/Ce/Co oxides) to offer a viable pathway for building-integrated VIPs requiring >20-year service life.

3.2. Advanced Getter Materials

It is important to explore alloys or composites with a greater affinity for residual gases, contributing to improving long-term vacuum stability and mitigate performance decay. Conventional zirconium (Zr) or barium (Ba) getters have been widely used in the vacuum field [72,73]. However, their application in VIPs is subject to a poor gas sorption capacity and high activation temperature thresholds [74] since the thermal stability of VIP polymer laminates cannot be maintained above 150 °C [75]. In contrast to traditional getters, Ba-Li alloys facilitate the adsorption of active gases under ambient setting, bypassing the energy-intensive thermal activation process [37]. Consequently, a multi-component COMBOGETTER getter consisting of CaO, BaLi4 and Co3O4 has been developed by the SAES Getters Company [37]. Also, Nanjing Shangong New Material Technology Co., Ltd. (Thanko) has introduced the TK107 series, a novel formulation incorporating CaO, BaLi4 and ZrVFe [76]. These advanced getters demonstrate efficacy in adsorbing ambient H2O and reactive gases under operational conditions. Kwon et al. [11] highlighted the COMBOGETTER getter as a commercially available getter material, referencing manufacturer-reported performance metrics that include a total sorption capacity exceeding 1.33 × 103 Pa·L and an initial sorption rate greater than 1.33 × 10−4 Pa·L/s. Figure 5a demonstrates the comparative pressure evolution profiles of VIPs with and without integrated getter systems. The presence of getter materials helps to maintain a stable internal pressure, contrasting with the rapid pressure rise in panels without integrated getter. Thus, these results indicate that VIP systems incorporating this getter can achieve operational lifetimes surpassing 20 years. Similarly, Katsura et al. [17] demonstrated promising results by integrating SAES getter materials with a double-envelope VIP configuration. Accelerated aging tests were conducted by exposing VIP specimens to 80 °C environments, a prototype featuring interior getter placement with external desiccant configuration exhibited merely 10.5% thermal resistance degradation after 141 weeks (Figure 5b). The application of getter materials and dual barrier envelopes significantly mitigates pressure differentials and gas permeation within the inner VIP, thereby extending service lifetimes. However, these commercial alloy-containing getters remain sparingly employed in VIP applications owing to the risk of combustion [59,77]. When exposed to ambient moisture, these alloys undergo exothermic hydrolysis reactions that pose combustion risks. Furthermore, their hydrogen absorption mechanism forms metastable solid solutions instead of stable hydrides, which leads to reversible storage conditions for absorbed hydrogen under thermal stress [78]. H2 significantly impairs the insulation performance of VIPs because its thermal conductivity is 7 times that of air [40,79]. Therefore, alloy-based compounds are generally not utilized independently as getters but rather in conjunction with desiccants and hydrogen-absorbing substances.

3.3. Electrochemical Getters

To address the limitations of conventional getter materials in VIPs, particularly their restricted gas sorption capacity and safety concerns, electrochemical getters (EGs) have emerged as an innovative high-efficiency solution. Jebaraj et al. [38] pioneered a novel electrochemical device architecture comprising a lithium foil or lithiated metal oxide anode, a polyethylene oxide (PEO)-based polymer electrolyte incorporated with lithium salts and a porous nickel cathode, which are organized in a multilayered configuration. Experimental observations reveal distinct electrochemical behaviors of lithium-based getters across varied atmospheres. Ar does not react with metallic lithium, exhibiting the lowest open-circuit potential (0.75 V). Residual gases in high-vacuum (HV) conditions induce measurable reactions, yielding a slightly elevated potential, compared to Ar. The explanation of this rational is that the N2 and O2 gases exhibit a substantial reactivity, generating significantly higher potential outputs. The morphological evolution of lithium metal on the electrode surface under an Ar atmosphere, accompanied by evident product formation, provides conclusive evidence that electrochemically generated metallic lithium actively interacts with all atmospheric molecular species through gettering processes. Notably, such gas-absorbing behavior holds significant implications for VIPs. It is critical for maintaining ultralow internal pressure and eliminating residual gases to achieve optimal thermal insulation performance. Additionally, this breakthrough structural design facilitates three essential advancements, such as the incorporation of an inherently safe on-demand lithium activation mechanism, high-capacity polymer architecture and intelligent gas leakage monitoring capabilities. These innovations fundamentally alter traditional getter applications in VIP systems by sustaining ultrahigh vacuum levels (10−1–10−2 Pa) over extended periods. Therefore, EGs have emerged as very attractive candidates for next-generation gas absorption materials, demonstrating an exceptional potential to transform gas management in vacuum insulation systems.

4. Challenges and Perspectives

In summary, this review comprehensively analyzes the strategic deployment of advanced getter materials in VIPs to elucidate their critical function in preserving vacuum integrity (<5 Pa operational pressure), ensuring long-term thermal performances. The application of getter materials in vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) traces its origins to pioneering work by SAES Getters in 1996, who first implemented metallic getters for gas adsorption in evacuated panels [37]. However, early adoption faced significant commercialization barriers due to prohibitive manufacturing costs and safety concerns associated with pyrophoric alloy components. Subsequent advancements in core material optimization (e.g., glass fiber) and barrier film engineering (multilayer metallized polymer laminates) enabled cost reductions of 40–60% through scaled production, facilitating initial deployment in premium refrigeration. This technological inflection catalyzed intensive research into next-generation getter systems. Current development strategies, systematically categorized in Figure 6a, emphasize three principal approaches: nanostructured materials, advanced getter materials and electrochemical getters. A comparative evaluation was carried out across five critical operational parameters—absorption efficiency, cost effectiveness, processing simplicity, scalability, and security (Figure 6b). Nanostructured adsorbents exhibit superior cost effectiveness and inherent safety (non-pyrophoric), though they are constrained by moderate gas uptake capacities. Advanced alloy systems (e.g., BaLi4/ZrVFe composites) demonstrate exceptional multi-gas absorption through hybrid chemisorption mechanisms, yet require encapsulation technologies to mitigate hydrolysis risks. Electrochemical getters present unique advantages in terms of absorption rate regulation and real-time vacuum monitoring via electric signals, though their complex multilayer architectures (Ni/PEO/Li foil) incur higher cost premiums versus conventional systems. Strategic material selection must consider application-specific requirements: cost-sensitive construction insulation favors hierarchical carbon-based getters, while performance-critical medical applications necessitate electrochemical getters.
State-of-the-art getter systems, particularly nanostructured materials and advanced alloys materials and surface-modified composites, leverage their tunable chemical affinity and bimodal pore architectures to achieve synergistic gas capture through dual physisorption–chemisorption mechanisms. An ideal getter material for application in a VIP should possess the following properties: (1) atomic-level porosity engineering enabling selective adsorption of residual gases (H2O ≤ 10 ppm, CO2 ≤ 100 ppm); (2) an exceptionally high specific surface area (>1000 m2/g) to maximize adsorption sites and gas molecule interaction; (3) surface functionalization with transition metal catalysts enhancing dissociation kinetics of reactive gas species; and (4) an environmentally sustainable composition with non-toxic degradation products, ensuring full compliance with RoHS directives and minimal ecological footprint throughout the lifecycle. These innovations have resulted in practical improvements in VIP performance. Field data from building envelope applications demonstrate service life extensions exceeding 20 years while maintaining thermal conductivity (λ-values) below 8 mW/(m·K), as evidenced by longitudinal studies on nanostructured materials used in getters in glass fiber-core panels [6,67]. Such a highly reliable VIP systems offer dual environmental benefits through significant carbon emission reduction and enhanced spatial efficiency.
However, several deficiencies and challenges must be resolved before actual application. (1) The development of high-precision in situ gas analysis systems is imperative to quantify gas speciation and partial pressure dynamics within VIPs, driving the rational design of intelligent getters with adaptive absorption profiles and facilitating the creation of gas-selective getters. (2) Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent organic polymers (COPs) present promising potential as getters due to their exceptional specific surface areas (>7000 m2/g) and tunable pore architectures [80,81,82]. Catalytic properties can be engineered by metal cluster functionalization, facilitating synergistic gas capture-conversion mechanisms. Hierarchical pore architectures integrating micro-, meso-, and macropores exhibit a better improvement in gas diffusion kinetics compared to conventional zeolites. (3) Significant constraints remain in comprehending the surface reaction mechanisms of transition metal oxides in the presence of trace gas. State-of-the-art in situ transmission electron microscope (TEM) studies reveal that oxygen vacancy migration in Co3O4 nanostructures governs hydrogen oxidation efficiency, with surface reconstructions occurring at sub-nm scales [83]. A systematic investigation of dopant effects (e.g., Ce3+/Ce4+ ratios in ZrO2 catalysts) through combinatorial deposition techniques is required to optimize catalytic–adsorptive synergies [84,85]. (4) EGs exhibit great potential as next-generation sorption materials for VIPs, capable of achieving both the safe removal of internal gases and the real-time monitoring of internal pressure [86]. However, high production costs and immature technology currently hinder the industrial-scale commercialization of EGs. Getters are essential for guaranteeing the long-term service life and optimal energy efficiency of VIPs. Despite recent technological breakthroughs in getters, substantial challenges, such as cost effectiveness, safety profiles and adsorption efficiency, remain to be faced in complex gas environments. Therefore, future research requires interdisciplinary collaboration to integrate innovations in materials science with advanced engineering technologies, ultimately enabling the widespread application of VIPs in energy-efficient building systems, cold-chain logistics and various industrial fields.

Funding

This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant 52402111), the Natural Science Research Project of Anhui Educational Committee (2023AH040340), Research and Industry-Academia Collaboration Team on Nanoscale Anti-corrosion Coatings (2024CXYTT04).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Z.P. was employed by the company Hefei Hualing Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Verma, S.; Singh, H. Vacuum insulation panels for refrigerators. Int. J. Refrig. 2020, 112, 215–228. [Google Scholar]
  2. Zhou, J.; Peng, Y.; Xu, J.; Wu, Y.; Huang, Z.; Xiao, X.; Cui, Y. Vacuum insulation arrays as damage-resilient thermal superinsulation materials for energy saving. Joule 2022, 6, 2358–2371. [Google Scholar]
  3. Jihwan, P.; Tae, K.K.; Kim, S.D.; Lee, M.Y.; Ari, H.; Kwanchul, K. Development of a vacuum insulation panel detection system for end-of-life refrigerators in Korea: A practical approach. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 2024, 26, 1713–1726. [Google Scholar]
  4. Kaushik, D.; Singh, H.; Tassou, S.A. Vacuum insulation panels for high-temperature applications-Design principles, challenges and pathways. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2024, 48, 102415. [Google Scholar]
  5. Aparicio-Fernández, C.; Torner, M.E.; Cañada-Soriano, M.; Vivancos, J. Analysis of the energy performance strategies in a historical building used as a music school. Dev. Built Environ. 2023, 15, 100195. [Google Scholar]
  6. Marcio, G.; Simões, N.; Serra, C.; Ines, F.C. A review of the challenges posed by the use of vacuum panels in external insulation finishing systems. Appl. Energy 2020, 257, 114028. [Google Scholar]
  7. Kan, A.; Zhang, X.; Chen, Z.; Cao, D. Effective thermal conductivity of vacuum insulation panels prepared with recyclable fibrous cotton core. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 2023, 187, 108176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Verma, S.; Singh, H. Predicting the conductive heat transfer through evacuated perlite based vacuum insulation panels. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 2022, 171, 107245. [Google Scholar]
  9. Lee, J.; Song, T. Conduction/radiation combined heat transfer with contact resistance for application to vacuum insulation. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2019, 129, 380. [Google Scholar]
  10. Di, X.; Gao, Y.; Bao, C.; Hu, Y.; Xie, Z. Optimization of glass fiber based core materials for vacuum insulation panels with laminated aluminum foils as envelopes. Vacuum 2013, 97, 55–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Kwon, J.-S.; Jang, C.H.; Jung, H.; Song, T.H. Vacuum maintenance in vacuum insulation panels exemplified with a staggered beam VIP. Energy Build. 2010, 42, 590–597. [Google Scholar]
  12. Di, X.; Gao, Y.; Bao, C.; Ma, S. Thermal insulation property and service life of vacuum insulation panels with glass fiber chopped strand as core materials. Energy Build. 2014, 73, 176–183. [Google Scholar]
  13. Pei, Y.; Shen, Z.; Zhou, J.; Yang, B. Experimental and theoretical thermal performance analysis of additively manufactured polymer vacuum insulation panels. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2024, 256, 123957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Di, X.; Xie, Z.; Chen, J.; Zheng, S. Residual gas analysis in vacuum insulation panel (VIP) with glass fiber core and investigation of getter for VIP. Build. Environ. 2020, 186, 107337. [Google Scholar]
  15. Porta, P.D. Gas problem and gettering in sealed-off vacuum devices. Vacuum 1996, 47, 771–777. [Google Scholar]
  16. Alam, M.; Singh, H.; Limbachiya, M.C. Vacuum Insulation Panels (VIPs) for building construction industry—A review of the contemporary developments and future directions. Appl. Energy 2011, 88, 3592–3602. [Google Scholar]
  17. Katsura, T.; Nagano, K. Double envelope vacuum insulation panel to contribute to the long-term thermal insulation performance. Vacuum 2024, 229, 113599. [Google Scholar]
  18. Ju, J.Z.; Zhao, J.Y.; Li, C.; Xue, Y. Vacuum Insulation Panel Production with Ultralow Thermal Conductivity-A Review. Int. J. Thermophys. 2024, 45, 163. [Google Scholar]
  19. Verma, S.; Sara, A.; Singh, H. Why and which opacifier for perlite based vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) in the average temperature range of 10–70 °C. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 2023, 186, 108136. [Google Scholar]
  20. Mao, S.; Kan, A.; Huang, Z.; Zhu, W. Prediction of thermal performance of vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) with micro-fiber core materials. Mater. Today Commun. 2020, 22, 100786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Mao, S.; Kan, A.; Zhu, W.; Yuan, Y. The impact of vacuum degree and barrier envelope on thermal property and service life of vacuum insulation panels. Energy Build. 2020, 209, 109699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Shi, M.; Yang, L.; Chen, Z.; Kan, A.; Chen, S.; He, T.; Zhang, J. Impacts investigation of gas barrier on effective thermal conductivity and service life of vacuum insulation panel. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 20055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Katsura, T.; Miyata, T.; Memon, S.; Radwan, A.; Nagano, K. Experimental analysis of vacuum pressure and gas flow rate in structured-core transparent vacuum insulation panels. Energy Rep. 2023, 9, 1071–1078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Pons, E.; Yrieix, B.; Heymans, L.; Dubelley, F.; Planes, E. Permeation of water vapor through high performance laminates for VIPs and physical characterization of sorption and diffusion phenomena. Energy Build. 2014, 85, 604–616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Liang, W.; Di, X.; Zheng, S.; Wu, L.; Zhang, J. A study on thermal bridge effect of vacuum insulation panels (VIPs). J. Build. Eng. 2023, 71, 106492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Gonçalves, M.; Simões, N.; Serra, C.; Flores-Colen, I.; Rottenbacher, K.; Almeida, F. Study of the edge thermal bridging effect in vacuum insulation panels: Steady and unsteady-state approaches using numerical and experimental methods. Energ. Build. 2022, 258, 111821. [Google Scholar]
  27. Araki, K.; Kamoto, D.; Matsuoka, S.-i. Optimization about multilayer laminated film and getter device materials of vacuum insulation panel for using at high temperature. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2009, 209, 271–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Van Malsen, J.; Tenpierik, M.J.; Looman, R.; Cauberg, J.J.M. Heat Seal Strength of Barrier Films Used in Vacuum Insulation Panels At Room Temperature and At −130 °C. J. Plast. Film Sheeting 2008, 24, 35–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Yamamoto, H.; Ogura, D. Study of long-term performance of vacuum insulation panels containing getter materials in building environment. Energy Build. 2022, 255, 111648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Chuntonov, K.; Setina, J.; Douglass, G. The Newest Getter Technologies: Materials, Processes, Equipment. J. Mater. Sci. Chem. Eng. 2015, 3, 57–67. [Google Scholar]
  31. Yuan, B.; Ding, S.Q.; Wang, D.D.; Wang, G.; Li, H.X. Heat insulation properties of silica aerogel/glass fiber composites fabricated by press forming. Mater. Lett. 2012, 75, 204. [Google Scholar]
  32. Sun, Q.Q.; Xu, J.; Lu, C.B.; Zhu, S.Y.; Lin, G.Y.; Fan, M.Z.; Li, J.; Chen, K.F. Green and sustainable kapok fibre as novel core materials for vacuum insulations panels. Appl. Energy 2023, 347, 121394. [Google Scholar]
  33. Corker, J.; Marques, I.; Resalati, S.; Okoroafor, T.; Maalouf, A.; Fu, Z.Y.; Fan, M.Z. Al-rich industrial waste as new alternative of fumed silica for the manufacture of vacuum insulation panels for building energy conservation. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 415, 137854. [Google Scholar]
  34. Yamamoto, H.; Ogura, D. Dependence of gas permeation and adsorption on temperature in vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) containing getter materials. J. Build. Phys. 2021, 45, 604–628. [Google Scholar]
  35. Zheng, Q.R.; Zhu, Z.W.; Chen, J.; Yu, W.S. Preparation of carbon based getter for glass fiber core vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) used on marine reefer containers. Vacuum 2017, 146, 111–119. [Google Scholar]
  36. Yu, W.S.; Zhu, Z.W.; Chen, J.; Zheng, Q.R. Synthesis of the Getter for Vacuum Insulation Panels (VIPs) used on Marine Reefer Containers. MATEC Web Conf. 2016, 67, 06105. [Google Scholar]
  37. Manini, P.; Belloni, F. Device for Maintaining a Vacuum in a Thermally Insulating Jacket and Method of Making Such Device. U.S. Patent 5544490, 13 August 1996. [Google Scholar]
  38. Jebaraj, A.; Xu, J.; Feng, Z.; Abramson, A.R.; Scherson, D.A. Electrochemical Getters: A Novel Approach toward Improved Thermal Insulation. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2019, 166, B1701. [Google Scholar]
  39. Kan, A.; Zheng, N.; Wu, Y.; Wang, W.; Zhang, X.; Cai, H.; Cao, D. Theoretical prediction and aging experimental verification of the service life of vacuum insulation panels. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2022, 8, 100484. [Google Scholar]
  40. Luft, G.; Recasens, F.; Velo, E. Chapter 3—Kinetic Properties at High Pressure. In Industrial Chemistry Library; Bertucco, A., Vetter, G., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2001; Volume 9, pp. 65–140. [Google Scholar]
  41. Mulvihill, C.R.; Georgievskii, Y.; Klippenstein, S.J. Quantum and anharmonic effects in non-adiabatic transition state theory. J. Chem. Phys. 2023, 159, 174104. [Google Scholar]
  42. Rivlin, T.; Pollak, E. Nonadiabatic Couplings Can Speed Up Quantum Tunneling Transition Path Times. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2022, 13, 10558–10566. [Google Scholar]
  43. Elkatmis, A.; Kangi, R. Remarks concerning about the characteristics of the extractor vacuum gauge and the Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer. Measurement 2019, 131, 269–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Jousten, K.; Putzke, S.; Buthig, J. Partial pressure measurement standard for characterizing partial pressure analyzers and measuring outgassing rates. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 2015, 33, 061603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Di, X.; Chen, Z. Investigation of composite getter for vacuum insulation panels. J. Nanjing Univ. Aeronaut. Astronaut. 2017, 49, 24–28. [Google Scholar]
  46. Jung, H.; Jang, C.H.; Seok, Y.I.; Song, T.H. Investigation of gas permeation through Al-metallized film for vacuum insulation panels. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2013, 56, 436–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Torres, J.; Perry, C.C.; Wagner, A.J.; Fairbrother, D.H. Interaction of chlorine radicals with polyethylene and hydrocarbon thin films under vacuum conditions-a comparison with atomic oxygen reactivity. Surf. Sci. 2003, 543, 75–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Yavary, M.; Ale Ebrahim, H.; Falamaki, C. Competitive Adsorption Equilibrium Isotherms of CO, CO2, CH4, and H2 on Activated Carbon and Zeolite 5A for Hydrogen Purification. J. Chem. Eng. Data 2016, 61, 3420–3427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Mazza, F.; Boffito, C. Nonevaporable Getters: Properties and Applications. MRS Bull. 2013, 15, 50–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Pourhakkak, P.; Taghizadeh, A.; Taghizadeh, M.; Ghaedi, M.; Haghdoust, S. Chapter 1—Fundamentals of adsorption technology. In Interface Science and Technology; Ghaedi, M., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021; Volume 33, pp. 1–70. [Google Scholar]
  51. Liu, W.; Liu, J.; Ma, L.; Jing, D. Understanding the adsorption properties of CO2 and N2 by a typical MOF structure: Molecular dynamics and weak interaction visualization. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2024, 296, 120233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Han, R.; Tao, Y.; Zhou, L. Growth Study of Hierarchical Pore SSZ-13 Molecular Sieves with Improved CO2 Adsorption Performance. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 3171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Kurnitski, J.; Yamamoto, H.; Ogura, D.; Kalamees, T. Study on the temperature dependence of gas permeation and adsorption behavior of the vacuum insulation panel with getter materials. E3S Web Conf. 2020, 172, 21001. [Google Scholar]
  54. Xu, H.; Wang, Q.Y.; Jiang, M.; Li, S.S. Application of valence-variable transition-metal-oxide-based nanomaterials in electrochemical analysis: A review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2024, 1295, 342270. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  55. Yamamoto, H.; Ogura, D. Prediction of water vapor permeation and desiccant saturation in vacuum insulation panels with a glass fiber core. J. Build. Eng. 2023, 76, 107347. [Google Scholar]
  56. Zhu, M.; Yu, Y.; Huang, Q.; Li, X.; Gu, C.; Zhang, B.; Yao, X.; Li, Z.; Hao, C. Experimental study on the sorption performance of New-Fashioned silver getters compared with the traditional PdO in High-Vacuum multi-layer insulation vessels. Vacuum 2023, 208, 111685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Wang, J.; Zhan, Y.; Wei, W.; Chen, S.; Wang, R. A new cost effective composite getter for application in high-vacuum-multilayer-insulation tank. Vacuum 2016, 131, 44–50. [Google Scholar]
  58. Belousov, V.M.; Vasylyev, M.A.; Lyashenko, L.V.; Vilkova, N.Y.; Nieuwenhuys, B.E. The low-temperature reduction of Pd-doped transition metal oxide surfaces with hydrogen. Chem. Eng. J. 2003, 91, 143–150. [Google Scholar]
  59. Emmanuelle, P.; Yrieix, B.; Brunner, S. Evaluation of VIPs after mild artificial aging during 10 years: Focus on the core behavior. Energy Build. 2018, 162, 198–207. [Google Scholar]
  60. Magnano, E.; Vandré, S.; Kovac, J.; Narducci, E.; Caloi, R.; Manini, P.; Sancrotti, M. Surface and subsurface properties of a BaLi4 gettering alloy studied using X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. Surf. Sci. 1998, 402, 223–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Cuevas, F.; Latroche, M. Intermetallic alloys as hydrogen getters. J. Alloys Compd. 2022, 905, 164173. [Google Scholar]
  62. Zhang, R.; Shen, Z.; Park, B.; Feng, T.; Aldykiewicz, A.; Desjarlais, A.; Hun, D.; Shrestha, S. Natural fibers as promising core materials of vacuum insulation panels. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 453, 138890. [Google Scholar]
  63. Sun, Q.; Chen, J.; Xu, J.; Zhang, Z.; Zhu, S.; Li, J.; Chen, K.; Fan, M. Functionalising kapok fibre with lignin to enhance the structural and thermal performance of vacuum insulation panels. Ind. Crops Prod. 2024, 220, 119277. [Google Scholar]
  64. Sánchez-Calderón, I.; Bernardo, V.; Lizalde-Arroyo, F.; Martín-de-León, J.; Rodríguez-Pérez, M.Á. Development of new vacuum insulation core panels using micronized nanocellular poly(methyl-methacrylate) (PMMA). Appl. Mater. Today 2024, 41, 102483. [Google Scholar]
  65. Dong, X.; Zhang, Q.; Lan, Y.; Zeng, Q.; Fan, M.; Chen, L.; Zhao, W. Preparation and characterization of vacuum insulation panels with hybrid composite core materials of bamboo and glass fiber. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2022, 188, 115691. [Google Scholar]
  66. Pérez-Botella, E.; Valencia, S.; Rey, F. Zeolites in Adsorption Processes: State of the Art and Future Prospects. Chem. Rev. 2022, 122, 17647–17695. [Google Scholar]
  67. Rong, X.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, J. Factors affecting the thermal conductivity of vacuum-insulated panels: A review. Mater. Rep. 2025, 39, 24050221. [Google Scholar]
  68. Silva, J.A.C.; Rodrigues, A.E. Multisite Langmuir Model Applied to the Interpretation of Sorption of n -Paraffins in 5A Zeolite. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1999, 38, 2434–2438. [Google Scholar]
  69. Son, K.N.; Cmarik, G.E.; Knox, J.C.; Weibel, J.A.; Garimella, S.V. Measurement and Prediction of the Heat of Adsorption and Equilibrium Concentration of CO2 on Zeolite 13X. J. Chem. Eng. Data 2018, 63, 1663–1674. [Google Scholar]
  70. Prasad, R.; Rattan, G. Preparation Methods and Applications of CuO-CeO2 Catalysts: A Short Review. ChemInform 2010, 41, 7–30. [Google Scholar]
  71. Xu, J.; Bian, Y.; Tian, W.; Pan, C.; Wu, C.; Xu, L.; Wu, M.; Chen, M. The Structures and Compositions Design of the Hollow Micro–Nano-Structured Metal Oxides for Environmental Catalysis. Nanomaterials 2024, 14, 1190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Xiong, Y.H.; Wei, X.Y.; Qin, G.R.; Yuan, P.; Mao, C.H.; Du, J. Preparation and hydrogen sorption performance of a modified Zr-C getter. Vacuum 2008, 82, 737–741. [Google Scholar]
  73. Heidary Moghadam, A.; Dashtizad, V.; Kaflou, A.; Yoozbashizadeh, H. Effect of rare earth elements on sorption characteristics of nanostructured Zr-Co sintered porous getters. Vacuum 2015, 111, 9–14. [Google Scholar]
  74. Li, L.; Zeng, F.; Li, W.; Ziwei, W.; Liu, H.; Peng, Y.; Yi, G.; Song, J.; Wensheng, L. Nitrogen absorption behavior and mechanism of TiZrMnFe getter alloy. Vacuum 2021, 183, 109814. [Google Scholar]
  75. Barra, G.; Guadagno, L.; Raimondo, M.; Santonicola, M.G.; Toto, E.; Vecchio Ciprioti, S. A Comprehensive Review on the Thermal Stability Assessment of Polymers and Composites for Aeronautics and Space Applications. Polymers 2023, 15, 3786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Kan, A.; Zheng, N.; Zhu, W.; Cao, D.; Wang, W. Innovation and development of vacuum insulation panels in China: A state-of-the-art review. J. Build. Eng. 2022, 48, 103937. [Google Scholar]
  77. Wegger, E.; Jelle, B.P.; Sveipe, E.; Grynning, S.; Gustavsen, A.; Baetens, R.; Thue, J.V. Aging effects on thermal properties and service life of vacuum insulation panels. J. Build. Phys. 2011, 35, 128–167. [Google Scholar]
  78. Liu, M.; Liu, H.; Chen, K.; Jiangyong, S.; Hui, W.; Liu, J.; Liuzhang, O. An Al-Li alloy/water system for superior and low-temperature hydrogen production. Inorg. Chem. Front. 2021, 8, 3473–3481. [Google Scholar]
  79. Jones, J.R.; Gaedtke, M.; Sebastian, S.; Matthias, R.; Hermann, N.; Krause, M.J. Conjugate heat transfer through nano scale porous media to optimize vacuum insulation panels with lattice Boltzmann methods. Comput. Math. Appl. 2019, 77, 209–221. [Google Scholar]
  80. Jiao, L.; Seow, J.Y.R.; Skinner, W.S.; Wang, Z.U.; Jiang, H.L. Metal-organic frameworks: Structures and functional applications. Mater. Today 2019, 27, 43–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Nath, K.; Wright, K.R.; Ahmed, A.; Siegel, D.J.; Matzger, A.J. Adsorption of Natural Gas in Metal-Organic Frameworks: Selectivity, Cyclability, and Comparison to Methane Adsorption. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2024, 146, 10517–10523. [Google Scholar]
  82. Kim, S.C.; Choi, S.Q.; Park, J. Asymmetric Supercapacitors Using Porous Carbons and Iron Oxide Electrodes Derived from a Single Fe Metal-Organic Framework (MIL-100 (Fe)). Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Qu, J.; Sui, M.; Li, R. Recent advances in in-situ transmission electron microscopy techniques for heterogeneous catalysis. iScience 2023, 26, 107072. [Google Scholar]
  84. Chu, M.N.; Nguyen, L.T.H.; Truong, M.X.; Do, T.H.; Duong, T.T.A.; Nguyen, L.T.T.; Pham, M.A.; Tran, T.K.N.; Ngo, T.C.Q.; Pham, V.H. Ce3+/Ce4+-Doped ZrO2/CuO Nanocomposite for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue under Visible Light. Toxics 2022, 10, 463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Grabchenko, M.V.; Mikheeva, N.N.; Mamontov, G.V.; Cortés Corberán, V.; Litvintseva, K.A.; Svetlichnyi, V.A.; Vodyankina, O.V.; Salaev, M.A. Unraveling the Structural and Compositional Peculiarities in CTAB-Templated CeO2-ZrO2-MnOx Catalysts for Soot and CO Oxidation. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 3108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Lorger, S.; Fischer, D.; Usiskin, R.; Maier, J. Sputter deposition and thermal evaporation of Li2O, Li2S, and Li2Se films. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 2019, 37, 061515. [Google Scholar]
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g001
Figure 1. (a) Thermal conductivity of various core materials as a function of internal pressure. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [12]. (b) Schematic of a VIP structure and the vacuum leakage process. The red arrows indicate the direction of gas diffusion.
Figure 1. (a) Thermal conductivity of various core materials as a function of internal pressure. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [12]. (b) Schematic of a VIP structure and the vacuum leakage process. The red arrows indicate the direction of gas diffusion.
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g001
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g002
Figure 2. Photos of JMU-01 (a) and SAT-01 (b). (c) Temperature dependence of thermal conductivities of VIPs composed of JMU-01 and SAT-01. Isotherms of ethylene (d), propylene (e) and hydrogen (f) adsorptions at 273.15 K. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [35].
Figure 2. Photos of JMU-01 (a) and SAT-01 (b). (c) Temperature dependence of thermal conductivities of VIPs composed of JMU-01 and SAT-01. Isotherms of ethylene (d), propylene (e) and hydrogen (f) adsorptions at 273.15 K. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [35].
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g002
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g003
Figure 3. (a) Photo of zeolite getter. (b) Comparative long-term performance of Getter1 and Getter2. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [53].
Figure 3. (a) Photo of zeolite getter. (b) Comparative long-term performance of Getter1 and Getter2. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [53].
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g003
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g004
Figure 4. SEM images of the modified CaO (a) and modified CuO (b). (c) The test results of long-term performance with and without composite getter of nano-active CaO/CuO. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [12]. (d) Schematic diagram and photograph of the composite getter of CAU-1. (e) Tracking test results of VIP thermal conductivity over time with and without a getter. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [14].
Figure 4. SEM images of the modified CaO (a) and modified CuO (b). (c) The test results of long-term performance with and without composite getter of nano-active CaO/CuO. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [12]. (d) Schematic diagram and photograph of the composite getter of CAU-1. (e) Tracking test results of VIP thermal conductivity over time with and without a getter. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [14].
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g004
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g005
Figure 5. (a) Pressure increases in the VIPs with and without getters. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [11]. (b) Change in thermal resistance in the accelerated test using the double envelope type getter. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [17].
Figure 5. (a) Pressure increases in the VIPs with and without getters. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [11]. (b) Change in thermal resistance in the accelerated test using the double envelope type getter. This figure was reproduced with permission from ref. [17].
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g005
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g006
Figure 6. Summary and comparison of various treatment strategies for getter materials. (a) Roadmap of major achievements in the field of getter for VIPs. (b) An evaluation of various methods from five practical application metrics: absorption efficiency, cost effectiveness, processing simplicity, scalability, and security [12,14,27,29,35,36,38,45].
Figure 6. Summary and comparison of various treatment strategies for getter materials. (a) Roadmap of major achievements in the field of getter for VIPs. (b) An evaluation of various methods from five practical application metrics: absorption efficiency, cost effectiveness, processing simplicity, scalability, and security [12,14,27,29,35,36,38,45].
Nanomaterials 15 00532 g006
Table 1. Comparison of different gases composition in VIPs.
Table 1. Comparison of different gases composition in VIPs.
Core
Material		Initial Gas
Composition		Gas Composition After
Aging (Without Getter)		Getter MaterialInitial Thermal
Conductivity
mW/(m·K)		Thermal Conductivity
After Aging
mW/(m·K)
@720 day		Ref.
Glass fiberN2/O2/Ar/H2ON2/O2/Ar/H2O/H2/CO/CO2/CxHyCaO/CuO/Cu2O/CeO21.526.8[14]
Glass fiberN2/O2/H2/Ar/H2O/CO2/Zeolite2.02.2[34]
Glass fiberAir/H2/ethylene and propylene/Activated Carbon /ENG/Transitional metals2.45/[35]
Glass fiberN2/O2/H2O/H2/ArH2/H2O/N2/O2/CO/CO2/ArNano-CaO2.25.8[45]
Nano-CaO/Co3O42.23.9
/2.47.5
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Wang, J.; Pei, Z.; Zhou, N. Rational Design of Nanostructured Porous and Advanced Getter Materials for Vacuum Insulation Panels. Nanomaterials 2025, 15, 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070532

AMA Style

Wang J, Pei Z, Zhou N. Rational Design of Nanostructured Porous and Advanced Getter Materials for Vacuum Insulation Panels. Nanomaterials. 2025; 15(7):532. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070532

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Juan, Zhibin Pei, and Ningning Zhou. 2025. "Rational Design of Nanostructured Porous and Advanced Getter Materials for Vacuum Insulation Panels" Nanomaterials 15, no. 7: 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070532

APA Style

Wang, J., Pei, Z., & Zhou, N. (2025). Rational Design of Nanostructured Porous and Advanced Getter Materials for Vacuum Insulation Panels. Nanomaterials, 15(7), 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070532

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop