Organic Fluorescent Sensors for Environmental Analysis: A Critical Review and Insights into Inorganic Alternatives
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Organic Materials
2.1. Small Molecule-Based Sensors
- (1)
- Pyrene and its derivatives are fluorescent probes used in sensors to (i) detect reactive oxygen species (ROS) in biological systems (as indicators of oxidative stress and cellular damage) [34]; (ii) enhance the electrochemical properties of materials, useful in energy storage applications [34]; and (iii) detect various analytes (metals [35], drugs [36], gas molecules [37]). In these sensors, sensing is allowed by changes in pyrene moiety fluorescence intensity. Interesting environmental applications are those in heavy metal detection, with an LOD of 2.9 nM for the detection of Ag+ (in DMSO–H2O, 1:1 v/v, HEPES = 50 mM, pH = 7.4) and 4 and 2 ppb for the detection of Hg+ and Pb2+ (in MeCN–H2O, 2:8 v/v), respectively [35].
- (2)
- Fluorescein, a synthetic organic compound with strong fluorescence, is commonly used in glucose sensors for medical diagnostics [38,39] and, along with its derivatives, for modern biochemical and biological studies. Derivatives (Eosin B, Rose Bengal, etc.) are obtained through the inclusion of heavy atoms or the substitution of the hydroxyl groups on the xanthene core in order to tune the fluorescent properties and achieve additional functionalities. The structural modification occurring at the carboxyl group by introducing different groups produces a spirolactam structure that is non-fluorescent. Various factors, like the pH, the temperature, and the presence of other molecules, can cause this modification, followed by quenching. In environmental analysis, fluoresceins have been used to detect different metal ions in aqueous solutions, with LOD values in the nanomolar range: Cu2+, noted for the toxic effect of its accumulation in Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s diseases, was detected down to 6.32 nM [40]; Hg2+, which enters the food chain from the environment, was detected down to an LOD of 0.86 nM [41]; and even anions, such as ClO−, whose excessive intake can cause tissue damage, liver injury, arthritis, and cardiovascular diseases, was detected with an LOD of 56 pM [42].
- (3)
- Rhodamine represents a group of xanthene derivative dyes characterized by fine biocompatibility and near-infrared fluorescence, used in oxygen sensors for environmental monitoring. Structurally similar to fluoresceins, rhodamine sensing is based on the “closing–opening” of the rhodamine derivative’s ring structure, before and after target addition. Coordination between the sensor and target (mainly metal ions [43]) induces spirolactam ring opening and changes the colorimetric and/or fluorescent responses, which are usually absent before the coordination [44]. Optimal LOD values (0.107 µM, corresponding to 6.79 µg/L) have been recently achieved for Cu2+, reaching a concentration significantly below the drinking water quality standard of 2.0 mg/L of the World Health Organization (WHO) [43].
- (4)
- Cyanine dyes are a family of tetramethylindo(di)-carbocyanines that consist of a polymethine chain containing an odd number of carbon atoms between two tertiary amines, often represented by two aromatic nitrogen-containing heterocycles as charged chromophores, acting as both electron donors and acceptors [45]. Cyanine dyes have been studied widely and are some of the oldest [46] and brightest synthetic fluorophores [47]. They play significant roles in various scientific and technological fields:
- -
- Biological imaging and microscopy—as fluorescent probes they are widely used for labeling biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, allowing researchers to visualize and track biological processes [48];
- -
- Chemical and biological sensors—due to their sensitive response to changes in their environment, they are employed in the development of sensors for analytes such as ions, H+, and biomolecules [48];
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- Photodynamic therapy (PDT)—certain cyanine dyes are used in PDT for cancer treatment, since they generate reactive oxygen species when exposed to light, which can destroy cancer cells [49];
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- Solar cells—cyanine dyes are explored as sensitizers in dye-sensitized solar cells, since they can absorb sunlight and convert it into electrical energy, contributing to the development of renewable energy sources [50].While less explored for environmental applications, Galhano et al. proposed silica platforms doped with cyanine derivatives for the detection of divalent metal ions in acetonitrile [51] (Zn2+, Cd2+, Co2+, Ni2+, and Hg2+), obtaining LOD values of 31 nM and 37 nM, with naked eye detection values of 2.9 ppm and 2.1 ppm, for Hg2+ and Cu2+ ions, respectively.
- (5)
- BODIPY (difluoroboron dipyrromethene, or 4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene) represents a class of fluorophores whose structure consists of boron difluoride and dipyrromethene. They possess high photostability and are stable under physiological conditions; moreover, their relative ease of functionalization allows for the extensive synthesis of derivatives, which have been used since the mid-1990s as fluorescent dyes and sensors [52]. A recent interesting application is reported in [53], which describes a fluorometric chemosensor based on mercaptoethanol and BODIPY constructed to detect dicofol, an organochlorine pesticide that is moderately toxic to humans. The chemosensor displayed turn-off fluorescence behavior under dicofol, with a detection limit of 200 ppb. In another study [54], a water-soluble near-infrared sensor based on aza-BODIPY was developed for the dual determination of Cd2+ in environmental and biological media. The sensor exhibited a color change from colorless to green along with a fluorescence enhancement in the near-infrared (NIR) region via photoinduced electron transfer (PET) after complexation with Cd2+, with an LOD of 2.8 ppb.
2.2. Nanoparticle-Based Sensors
- (1)
- Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) are a fascinating class of carbon-based nanomaterials known for their low toxicity, high biocompatibility, ease of synthesis (even from biomass and waste), and broad possibilities for surface modification or heteroatom doping [57]. These zero-dimensional nanoparticles have garnered significant attention for their potential applications in various fields, including biosensing for the detection of metal ions and (bio)molecules [58], bioimaging, and drug delivery [59]. As shown in Figure 3, belonging to the group of carbon dots, CQDs substantially differ from quantum dots (QDs): the latter have the same structure and atomic composition as bulk materials, while the former are quasi-spherical nanoparticles with both amorphous and crystalline cores, composed of graphitic or turbostratic carbon with an sp2 configuration, and may also consist of graphene or graphene oxide sheets fused or arranged through sp3-hybridized carbon atoms [60]. Due to the abundance of functional groups on their surfaces, CQDs possess high water solubility and provide active sites for functionalization, thus enhancing their versatility and applicability in different fields.The use of CQDs for environmental applications in the sensor and biosensor areas is widely reported in the literature. Most CQD-based sensors focuses on heavy metal detection, and, among them, mercury is the most frequently detected, with an LOD of 0.2 nM, useful for effective water quality control [62]. Meanwhile, most CQD-based biosensors targeting environmental pollutants focus on pesticides, such as diazinon [63], glyphosate [63], fenitrothion [64], malathion [65], and chlorpyrifos [65], with LODs ranging from 0.36 to 8.2 nM.An interesting environmental application is microplastic detection. In [66], N and Cl co-doped carbon quantum dots were synthesized and used to combine fluorescence and Rayleigh scattering, enabling the detection of polystyrene microplastics with three different particle sizes, with an LOD of 0.4 mg/L. Due to their remarkable photostability, CQDs are particularly suitable for real-time monitoring [67].
- (2)
- Polymeric nanoparticles are nanoscale particles composed of polymers, which have gained significant attention in various fields due to their numerous properties: they are biocompatible—and thus suitable for medical and biological applications—and can be designed in various shapes (spheres, rods, or capsules) depending on the intended application. Moreover, they can be engineered to minimize toxicity and immune responses and can be easily modified with various functional groups, targeting ligands, or therapeutic agents, enhancing their specificity and effectiveness. Examples of polymeric nanoparticles are polyethylene glycol (PEG) nanoparticles, polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) nanoparticles, or conductive polymer nanocomposites (CPNs), i.e., a combination of conductive polymers with materials like graphene, carbon nanotubes, and metal nanoparticles. Although most of the literature on polymeric nanoparticles centers on their use in drug delivery systems [68,69], imaging/diagnostics [70], gene therapy [71], and cancer treatment [69], compelling studies also demonstrate their effective utilization as chemical sensors [72]. In [73], a highly crosslinked polymer matrix, obtained by the mini-emulsion copolymerization of divinylbenzene (DVB) with an aggregation-induced emission (AIE) monomer composed of (4′-tetraphenyletheyl)pheny-3-butenylether (TPE-PBE), is designed for the detection of explosives based on the quenching of the polymer matrix (both in liquid and film states) observed after contact with the target (in solution or as a vapor) (Figure 4). The sensor showed very good sensitivity for the highly explosive picric acid, with an LOD value of 5.43 μM (or 1.24 ppm).Another notable application lies in the detection of Fe2+ and Fe3+ through a chemosensor based on fluorescent polymer nanoparticles bearing rhodamine B ethylenediamine acrylate, obtained by semicontinuous emulsion polymerization [74]. The color of the aqueous dispersion of polymer nanoparticles changed from violet to red–pink immediately after adding iron ions, with LOD values of 2.63 and 2.5 µM for Fe2+ and Fe3+, respectively.
- (3)
- Organic semiconducting nanoparticles (OSNs) are a class of nanomaterials derived from organic semiconductors, which are composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They exhibit unique electronic and optical properties, which make them highly suitable for various applications, including biosensing, imaging, and optoelectronics [75,76]. Examples of OSNs are (i) poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) nanoparticles, used for applications in organic photovoltaics and biosensors [77,78]; (ii) polydiacetylene (PDA) nanoparticles, known for their colorimetric and fluorescence properties and useful in biosensing and environmental monitoring [79]; (iii) polyfluorene nanoparticles, used in optoelectronic devices, such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) [80]; and (iv) poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-co-bithiophene) (F8T2) nanoparticles, employed in organic solar cells and biosensors due to their excellent charge transport properties [81].
2.3. Polymer-Based Sensors
2.3.1. Conducting Polymers
- (1)
- Polypyrrole (PPy) is a conductive polymer known for its excellent electrical properties and environmental stability, which make it suitable for various optical sensing applications. PPy is widely used in chemical and biological sensors. Its ability to undergo reversible redox reactions makes it suitable for detecting gases, ions, and biomolecules [84] and metals with a negative impact on the environment [90].
- (2)
- Polyaniline (PANI) is valued for its tunable conductivity and ease of synthesis. It is used in sensors for detecting pH changes, gases, and humidity. Its conductive properties can be adjusted by doping with different acids [91], while, in the form of a nanocomposite based on electrostatic interactions between polyaniline and Ag-ZnO, it has been used for the detection of organophosphorous pesticides [92] (Figure 7 and Figure 8). Polypyrrole (PPy) and polyaniline (PANI) exhibit poor electrochemical stability when used as pure polymers [93]. However, researchers have been working to solve this issue and, for example, hydrogels based on these polymers have shown significantly improved stability. According to the literature, polyaniline- and polypyrrole-based hydrogels enhance performance by up to two orders of magnitude and maintain stability over thousands of working cycles [94].
- (3)
- Polyindol (PIN) is a polymer of an indole monomer that has a fused aromatic molecular structure consisting of a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring and a six-membered benzene ring. In comparison to other conducting polymers, such as PANI, PIN shows relatively slow hydrolytic degradation, improved thermal stability, and excellent photoluminescent properties [95]. A noteworthy, albeit earlier, application of PIN is that reported by Faraz et al. [96] for the detection of picric acid. The fluorescence sensor, obtained from the in situ chemical oxidative polymerization of polyindole with CdS nanoparticles, worked based on a static/dynamic quenching mechanism. The comparison of the fluorescence intensities with those of diverse metal ions, such as Li+, Ca2+, Cd2+, Pb2+, Cr2+, Hg2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+, confirmed the selectivity of the PIN/CdS nanocomposite for picric acid (Figure 9), showing a Stern–Volmer constant (Ksv) value of 30 × 103 M−1 (Figure 10) [96].
- (4)
- Polythiophene (PTh) is used with its derivatives for their excellent electrical properties and stability. PTh-based sensors are employed in applications such as gas detection and biosensing [97]. One of its derivatives (PEDOT), combined with polystyrene sulfonate, is particularly popular in flexible and wearable sensors [98], while malonic acid derivatives (PTMA) have been used for the detection of alkaloids [99].
- (5)
- Covalent organic polymers (COPs) are a class of materials characterized by highly stable, covalently bonded structures. These polymers are composed of organic building blocks linked together through strong covalent bonds, forming extended networks. Their high porosity and tunable properties make them suitable for a wide range of applications, such as gas storage [100], catalysis [101], and sensing [102], for the detection of heavy metal ions, explosives, and biological molecules. Due to their high thermal stability, easily adjustable functions, amplified responses, and superior sensitivity to analytes (compared with low-molar-mass congeners), COPs are promising candidates for fluorescent sensors. In [103], for instance, a COP containing ynone reaction sites (namely, COP-Ta) was used for detecting hydrazine (Figure 11).
- (6)
- Conjugated polymers with N-heterocyclic moieties are a class of polymers that incorporate N-heterocyclic moieties into their conjugated backbones. This enhances the electronic properties, such as conductivity and fluorescence, making them highly effective in detecting various analytes, such as environmental pollutants [104] and bioactive compounds [105]. This performance is further amplified by the molecular wire effect, a phenomenon first described by Zhou and Swager in the early 1990s [106]. It refers to the efficient transport of electronic excitations, or charge carriers, along the polymer backbone, facilitated by the delocalization of π-electrons across the conjugated system. This extended conjugation creates a quasi-one-dimensional pathway that enables rapid energy migration, allowing localized interactions, such as analyte binding or charge trapping, to influence the entire polymer chain. As a result, materials exhibiting this effect demonstrate enhanced sensitivity and signal amplification, particularly in applications such as fluorescent chemosensing and organic electronics. Examples of conjugated polymers with N-heterocyclic moieties are poly(2,5-bis(3-hexylthiophen-2-yl)thiazolo[5,4-d]thiazole) (PBTTT), whose thiazole units improve charge transport properties (useful in organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) and photovoltaic devices) [107]; poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), whose pyridine units enhance electron-accepting properties (useful for applications in organic solar cells and sensors) [108]; and poly(2,7-carbazole) derivatives, known for their high thermal stability and excellent optoelectronic properties, which make them useful for light-emitting diodes, photovoltaic devices [109], and optical sensors [110].
2.3.2. Non-Conducting Polymers
- (1)
- Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a water-soluble polymer used in sensors for its excellent film-forming properties and biocompatibility. It is often used in combination with other materials to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of sensors in detecting humidity, gases, biomolecules [86], and metals [113].
- (2)
- Polystyrene (PS) is a polymer with excellent hydrocarbon resistance, a high degree of dimensional stability, and superior mechanical performance at high temperatures. As nanobeads, microspheres, ultrathin films, or in association with other polymers (such as polyvinyl chloride, PVC), it has been used for the detection of alcohols, Fe3+, and chloroform [84], while, in association with fluorophores (like naphthalimide), it has been used for sensing heavy metals [114].
- (3)
- Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is a synthetic polymer prepared from a methyl methacrylate monomer with the use of different polymerization methods. It is widely used for the sensing of pH [115] and gases such as NO2 [116] and, interestingly (as nanofibers), to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [117]. In this study, electrospun nanofibers composed of PMMA doped with small amounts of polyfluorene (PFO) were used to realize a sensor, showing fluorescence quenching in the presence of various VOCs, particularly chloroform, with detection limits as low as 15.4 ppm. The sensing mechanism was attributed to conformational transitions of PFO from the glassy phase to the β-phase, induced by interactions with VOC molecules, resulting in changes in its photophysical behavior (Figure 12 and Figure 13).
- (4)
- Polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) is prepared by the polymerization of a vinyl acetate monomer; its reactivity depends on the triple-bond electronic density and the π-bond energy. It has been successfully employed for ammonia sensing [118] or as a filter (integrated with a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor imaging sensor) for the realization of a portable biochemical sensing device [119]. Moreover, it was recently used as randomly oriented nanofibers to realize a sensor with a surface-enhanced fluorescence factor of 1170 and an LOD as low as 7.24 fM for rhodamine 6G (used as a probe) [120].
2.4. Covalent Organic Framework (COF)-Based Sensors
- (1)
- TpPa-1 is composed of 1,3,5-triformylphloroglucinol (Tp) and p-phenylenediamine (Pa), known for its excellent chemical stability and high fluorescence efficiency and widely used in sensing applications, including the detection of metal ions and explosives [137].
- (2)
- COF-5 is constructed from benzene-1,4-diboronic acid and hexahydroxytriphenylene. It exhibits a three-dimensional structure with high thermal stability and is used in applications such as gas adsorption and catalysis, as well as fluorescent sensing [138].
- (3)
- (4)
- TzDa-1 is derived from 1,3,5-triformylphloroglucinol (Tz) and 2,5-diaminobenzene (Da). It is known for its high fluorescence quantum yield and is used in sensing applications for detecting environmental pollutants [140].
- (5)
2.5. Metal–Organic Framework (MOF)-Based Sensors
- (1)
- UiO-66 is known for its stability and high surface area. UiO-66 is widely used in optical sensing applications, particularly for detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, cancer, and SARS-CoV-2 [147].
- (2)
- ZIF-8 is known for its excellent chemical stability and large surface area. It is often used in gas sensing and detecting small organic molecules [148].
- (3)
- MIL-101(Cr) is favored for its large pore size and high surface area, making it suitable for sensing applications involving larger molecules and pollutants [148].
- (4)
- HKUST-1 is commonly used in optical sensing due to its unique luminescent properties and ability to detect various gases and organic compounds [149].
- (5)
- MOF-5 is known for its high porosity and tunable structure. MOF-5 is used in optical sensors for detecting gases and environmental pollutants [149].
2.6. Biomolecule-Based Sensors
- (1)
- Protein-based fluorescent sensors: These use fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its variants for the detection of ions, proteins, and nucleic acids [151] or mCherry (red fluorescent protein) and yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) to design sensors for live-cell imaging and the real-time monitoring of cellular processes [152]. In Sisila et al. [153], a Cu2+ sensor with high sensitivity and selectivity was developed by incorporating aminotyrosine (as an electron-donating group) into the GFP chromophore. The result was the development of an efficient red-shifted fluorescent protein-based biosensor that could also act as a bio-cleaner for the removal of Cu2+ ions from wastewater samples, with an estimated LOD of 1–5 μM, taking into account the calculated Kd of 5.25 ± 1.59 μM (see Cu2+ titration in Figure 23) [153].
- (2)
- Enzyme-based fluorescent sensors: These use enzymes that produce a fluorescent signal upon interaction with a target biomolecule. Enzymatic fluorescent biosensors are the main tools in biosensor technology, currently used in clinical diagnosis, environmental monitoring, and industrial applications. This group of sensors includes oxidoreductases (historically used to detect glucose in the blood), transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases [154], which are associated with quantum dots, fluorescent proteins, and nanomaterial-enhanced fluorophores and allow for enhanced signal stability, multiplexing capabilities, and reduced detection limits. In Cai et al. [155], an innovative dual-mode biosensor (fluorescent and colorimetric) is described for the detection of organophosphorous pesticides (OPs). The sensor is obtained by embedding gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) inside a ZIF-8 MOF, leading to the highly fluorescent composite AuNCs@ZIF-8. In the presence of active acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and choline oxidase (CHO), acetylcholine is enzymatically converted, producing H2O2, which degrades ZIF-8 and produces a fluorescence reduction. In such a system, when OPs are present, they inhibit AChE, so less H2O2 is formed and fluorescence is retained, while the system changes color (from blue to grey), as shown in Figure 24 [155].
- (3)
- Nucleic acid-based fluorescent sensors: These employ fluorescent probes designed to bind specific DNA or RNA sequences, but also distinct molecules, such as proteins; thus, they can be powerful tools to elucidate intracellular processes in genetic analysis and disease diagnostics [156]. This group includes (i) molecular beacons (MBs) (Figure 26A, extracted from [156]), which are pioneering nucleic acid-based sensors, developed as fluorescent “turn-on” detection systems [157]; (ii) aptamers (Figure 26B) [158], which are oligonucleotides binding to specific target compounds or proteins; and (iii) DNAzymes (Figure 26C) [159], which are synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules with catalytic activity, obtained by in vitro selection, having two complementary binding arms—one able to bind to the target sequence of a substrate and the second exhibiting phosphodiester bond cleavage activity [159].
- (4)
- Antibody-based fluorescent sensors, namely fluorescent immunosensors: These are the most commonly and widely used immunosensors for environmental and food monitoring, as well as disease diagnosis, owing to the high sensitivity and specificity of antibodies in the recognition of their substrates [161]. Fluorescence-based immunosensors offer several key advantages, including rapid response times and non-invasiveness due to the use of light-based excitation, the ability to perform multiplexed analyses via distinct fluorescence wavelengths, and superior sensitivity and selectivity relative to colorimetric or absorbance-based methods. They can be divided into two groups: (1) FRET-based immunosensors and (2) single-fluorophore immunosensors. The first group (Figure 27) [161] includes conventional FRET sensors (donor and acceptor fluorophores on antibodies or antigens), time-resolved FRET (TR-FRET, using long-lifetime donors to reduce background noise), open-sandwich FRET (using fluorescein- and rhodamine-labeled heavy-chain (VH) and light-chain (VL) fragments for small molecule detection), and pincer-type FRET (which uses DNA duplexes to stabilize fluorophore-labeled antibody pairs).
- (5)
- Fluorescent sensors based on living (micro)organisms or parts of them: This group of biosensors includes any living (micro)organism, or part of one (single cell, organelle, tissue), with unaltered vitality, naturally able to emit fluorescence or genetically engineered to produce fluorescent signals in response to specific stimuli. There are a number of articles in the literature reporting sensors of this type. Due to their large number, we only report here the latest trends for each mentioned subtype, considering (i) whole-cell biosensors, (ii) organelle-based biosensors, and (iii) tissue-based biosensors.
3. Insights into Inorganic Alternatives

| Inorganic Material | Target | Technique | Type of Sample | Performance | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CdSe/ZnS QDs | pH | PL | Aqueous media | 3.2–6 (pH scale) | [217] |
| CdSe QDs | Cu, Co, Mg, Fe, Cr, Zn, Ni ions | PL restoring | Aqueous media | LOD 0.2 µM | [218] |
| CdTe/ZnSe QDs | Pb2+ | PL quenching | Real sample | LOD 31.8 nM 50 nM–10 µM (detection range) | [223] |
| CdSe/CdS QDs | Hg2+ | PL restoring | Real sample | LOD 0.01 nM 0.25–100 nM (detection range) | [224] |
| CdSe/ZnS QDs | Trichlorfon | PL | Real sample | LOD 2.55 pg/mL 5–5 × 105 pg/mL (detection range) | [225] |
| Colorimetric analysis | LOD 1.06 pg/mL 0.05–5 × 1010 pg/mL (detection range) | ||||
| NaErF4-0.5% Tm3+/NaYF4 | Carbaryl | PL upconversion | Extracted sample | LOD 0.05 ng/mL 0.05–100 ng/mL | [235] |
| CuNPs | Hg2+ | PL restoring | Real sample | LOD 0.1 nM 0.5–100 nM (detection range) | [260] |
| Pb2+ | PL quenching | Real sample | LOD 5 nM 5–100 nM (detection range) | [261] | |
| Cu2+ | PL restoring | Real sample | LOD 0.3 ppm 0.95–6.35 ppm (detection range) | [262] | |
| Fe3+ | PL quenching | Real sample | LOD 10 nM 10 nM 10 μM (detection range) | [263] | |
| Cr(VI) | PL quenching | Aqueous media | LOD 65 nM 0.2–60 μM (detection range) | [264] | |
| Si QDs | Mg2+ | PL two-band ratio | Aqueous media | LOD 0.01 nM 0.02–10 nM (detection range) | [256] |
| Si QDs | Co2+ | PL quenching | Real sample | LOD 0.37 µM 1–120 µM (detection range) | [265] |
| S-Si QDs | Fe3+ | PL quenching | Real sample | LOD 0.21 μM 1–20 μM (detection range) | [266] |
| NaYF4 UCNPs * | Temperature | PL upconversion | Aqueous media | 20–45 °C | [267] |
| NaBiF4-Yb, Er NPs | Temperature | PL two-band ratio | Aqueous media | 303–523 K (detection range) | [268] |
4. Industrial Applications of Fluorescence-Based Optical Sensors
5. Advantages, Challenges, and Perspectives of Fluorescence-Based Optical Biosensors
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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| Organic Material | Target | Technique | Type of Sample | LOD | [Ref.] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Small molecules | |||||
| Pyrene-derivatives | Ag+ | Turn-off |
HEPES-buffered DMSO/H2O | 2.9 nM | [35] |
| Hg+ | Quenching | MeCN/H2O | 4 ppb | ||
| Pb2+ | Quenching | MeCN/H2O | 2 ppb | ||
| Fluorescein | Cu2+ | Turn-on | Aqueous solution | 6.32 nM | [40] |
| Hg2+ | Turn-on | Aqueous solution | 0.86 nM | [41] | |
| ClO− | Turn-on–turn-off | Aqueous solution | 56 pM | [42] | |
| Rhodamine | Cu2+ | Turn-on | MeCN/H2O | 0.107 µM | [43] |
| Cyanine dyes | Hg2+ | Color change | Acetonitrile | 31 nM (naked eye detection: 2.9 ppm) | [51] |
| Cu2+ | Quenching | Acetonitrile | 37 nM, (naked eye detection: 2.1 ppm) | ||
| BODIPY | Dicofol | turn-off fluorescence | Water and tea | 200 ppb | [53] |
| Cd2+ | color change | 2.8 ppb | [54] | ||
| Nanoparticles | |||||
| Carbon quantum dots | Diazinon | Quenching | Cherry tomato juice | 0.00821 µM | [63] |
| Glyphosate | Quenching | Cherry tomato juice | 0.00296 µM | [63] | |
| Fenitrothion | Quenching | Rice samples | 0.00036 µM | [64] | |
| Malathion | Quenching | Water | 0.00514 µM | [65] | |
| Chlorpyrifos | Quenching | Water | 0.00427 µM | [65] | |
| CQDs modified with Eu(III) complexes | Hg2+ | Quenching | Milk | 0.2 nM | [62] |
| N and Cl co-doped lignin CQDs | Polystyrene microplastics | Fluorescence emission | Water | 0.4 mg/L | [66] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | |||||
| Poly(DVB-co-TPE-PBE) | Picric acid | Quenching | Water solutions | 5.43 µM | [73] |
| Poly(methyl methacrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate) NPs | Fe2+ | Color change and fluorescence emission enhancement | 2.63 µM | [74] | |
| Fe3+ | 2.5 µM | ||||
| Organic semiconducting nanoparticles (OSNs) | |||||
| PCDA-Alen (based on PDA) | Pb2+ | Color change (from blue to red) with increase in fluorescence output | Water from various natural bodies | 16.3 nM (3.2 ppb) | [82] |
| TCDA-clay-N-1-hexadecyl imidazole | Toluene | Color change (from blue to red) with increase in fluorescence output | VOC atmosphere in sealed chamber (25 mL) | 0.02% | [83] |
| THF | 0.08% | ||||
| Benzene | 0.04% | ||||
| Polymers | |||||
| PPy | Cu2+ | Quenching | Water | 1.2 μM | [90] |
| PANI | Malathion | Quenching | Potatoes, tomatoes | 0.132 μM | [92] |
| PIN | Picric acid | Quenching | Organic media | 30 × 103 M−1 (*) | [96] |
| PTh | Berberine hydrochloride (alkaloid) | Decrease in fluorescence emission and color change (from pale yellow to red) | Water, urine samples | 0.27 μM | [99] |
| COPs | Hydrazine | Fluorescence turn-on | Aqueous solutions | 0.16 μM | [103] |
| Conjugated polymers with N-heterocyclic moieties | 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP) or picric acid solution and vapor | PL quenching | Aqueous solutions | 147 nM (38 ppb) | [110] |
| PVA | Cu2+ | Luminescence quenching | Aqueous environments | 0.086 μM | [113] |
| PS | Hg2+ | Increase in fluorescence emission | Real water samples | 1.01 μM | [114] |
| PMMA | Chloroform | Luminescence quenching | Gas chamber | 15.4 ppm | [117] |
| PVAc | |||||
| COFs | |||||
| COF-DHTA | Al3+ | Turn-on | DMF suspension | 0.93 μmol/L | [134] |
| COF-CB | Pb2+ | Turn-on | DMF solution | 1.48 µmol/L | [135] |
| Hg2+ | Quenching | Aqueous solution | 17 nM | [180] | |
| DHB-TFP COF | NP | Turn-off | 0.40 μmol/L | [136] | |
| TNP (picric acid) | Turn-off | 11.15 μmol/L | |||
| TFPB-TTA COF | DNP | Quenching | Aqueous solution | 18 nM | [181] |
| TNP | 16 nM | ||||
| MOFs | |||||
| MB@Cd-MOF | Carbaryl | Fluorescence enhancement | Tap and river water, fruit juices | 6.7 ng·mL–1 | [144] |
| TbMOF | Imidacloprid | Quenching | Water | 1.3 × 10−5 M−1 | [182] |
| Thiamethoxam | Quenching | 7.3 × 10−6 M−1 | |||
| {(Me2 NH2)[In(BDPO)]·DMF·2H 2O}n | 2,6-Dichloro-4-nitroaniline (DCN) | Quenching | Water | 0.14 μmol L−1 3.85 ppm | [183] |
| Co-MOF | p-Nitrophenyl phosphate (PNPP) | Quenching | Food, fruits, and domestic water | 352 nM | [184] |
| Cd(II)-MOF | Glyphosate | Turn-on fluorescence | Drinking water | 0.025 μmol L−1 | [185] |
| Cr3+ | Turn-on fluorescence | 0.6 μM | |||
| ZnMOF | Parathion | Quenching | Irrigation water | 1.95 mg L−1 | [186] |
| Zr-MOF | Monocrotophos (MCP) | “Turn-on” fluorescence | Tap water, lake water, wastewater | 1.84 nM | [145] |
| Eu-MOF | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) vapor | Turn-on | THF-saturated air | 17.33 Pa | [146] |
| Eu-MOF | Benzaldehyde solution | Benzyl alcohol | 9.3 × 10−6 M | [187] | |
| Fe3+ | DMF solution | 5.8 × 10−6 M | |||
| Dye@Eu-MOFs) | Acetaldehyde vapor | Quenching | Dye@Eu-MOF hydrogel plate | 8.12 × 10−4 mg/L | [188] |
| ZIF-90 MOF | Formaldehyde | Turn-on | Liquid and gas phases | 2.3 µM | [189] |
| Tb(BTC)-MOF | TNP vapor | Quenching | Saturated glass vial | <1 ppb | [190] |
| CuMOF | 2,4,6-Trinitrophenol (TNP) | Quenching | River and tap water samples | 0.08 μmol L−1 | [191] |
| P1@BMOF | Cu2+ | Quenching | Deionized water | 0.22 μM | [192] |
| P2@BMOF |
0.20 μM | ||||
| Eu@UiO-MOF-X | Cd2+ | IEu3+/IBPYDC (663 nm/426 nm) reduction | Rice, grape juice, and liquor samples | 5.67 × 10−7 M (114 ppb) | [193] |
|
{[H-Phen]2[Mn3(FDA)4(H2O)2]·2H2O}n (Mn-based MOF) | Ag+ | Turn-on | Water | 0.023 ppb | [194] |
| Cd2+ | Turn-on | 0.05 ppb | |||
| Hg2+ | Turn-off | 0.10 ppb | |||
| ZnTCPP-MOF | Pb2+ | Quenching (from bright red to colorless under UV light) | Water | 4.99 × 10−8 M | [195] |
| Biomolecule-based sensors | |||||
| Protein-based fluorescent sensors | |||||
| amGFP (sensor and bio-cleaner) | Cu2+ | Quenching | Wastewater | 1–5 μM (estimated) | [153] |
| Enzyme-based fluorescent sensors | |||||
| AuNC@ZIF-8 | Acephate | Turn-on | Water, lettuce | 0.67 μg/L | [155] |
| Glyphosate | - | ||||
| Malathion | - | ||||
| Parathion | - | ||||
|
Pirimiphos-methyl, fenitrothion | - | ||||
| (OPs) | - | ||||
| Nucleic acid-based fluorescent sensors | |||||
| G-CD@Apt | SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | Turn-on | Synthetic saliva, river water | 0.067 ng/mL (equivalent to 0.335 pg per test) | [160] |
| Thrombin-binding aptamer–crystal violet (TBA-CV) | Pb2+ | Fluorescence intensity decrease | Pond water | 1.18 nM (0.32 ppb) | [196] |
| DNA nanosphere-enhanced substrate strand–DNAzyme (DS-Sub-Dz) | Pb2+ | Fluorescence intensity increase | Drinking water, tap water, rainwater, and lake water | 2.0 nM | [197] |
| DVc1 (DNAzyme) | Vibrio cholerae | Turn-on | Raw choking sea crab forceps, raw choking oysters, and cold jellyfish | 7.2 × 103 CFU/mL | [198] |
| Antibody-based fluorescent sensors | |||||
| Au-Ag bimetallic nanoclusters (NCs) | Dicofol | Fluorescence recovery | Green tea, black tea, and dark tea | 0.185 ng/mL in liquid system | [162] |
| Gold nanoflowers (NFs) | 0.170 ng/mL in paper-based analytical devices | ||||
| FPIA (composed of anti-IMI monoclonal antibody and fluorescein isothiocyanate ethylenediamine (EDF)) | Imidacloprid (IMI) | Fluorescence polarization | Paddy water, corn, and cucumber | 1.7 µg/L | [163] |
| Fluorescent sensors based on living (micro)organisms or parts of them | |||||
| Whole-cell biosensors | |||||
| E. coli S17-1 (donor) | 1,3-Dinitrobenzene (1,3-DNB) | Liquid solution | 0.1 μg/mL | [199] | |
| P. putida (recipient) | Sand | 0.5 mg/kg | |||
| Escherichia coli DH5α | Hg(II) | Increase in red fluorescence | Cosmetics | 0.03 μM | [200] |
| Escherichia coli DH5α | Pb (II) | Synthetic wastewater | 2 nM | [201] | |
| Arxula adeninivorans | 17b-Estradiol | Fluorescence emission | Serum samples | 1 ng/L | [202] |
| Progesterone | 6 ng/L | ||||
| 5a-Dihydrotestosterone | 25 ng/L | ||||
| Chlamydomonas reinardtii Organelle-based biosensors Thylakoid membranes | Atrazine |
Fluorescence yield increase Fluorescence decrease | Water Fish, milk, river water | 7.3 × 10−10 M | [167] |
| Diuron | 2.3 × 10−10 M | ||||
|
Prometryn Netilmicin | 3.5 × 10−10 M 5.99 nM [153] |
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Buonasera, K.; Galletta, M.; Calvo, M.R.; Pezzotti Escobar, G.; Leonardi, A.A.; Irrera, A. Organic Fluorescent Sensors for Environmental Analysis: A Critical Review and Insights into Inorganic Alternatives. Nanomaterials 2025, 15, 1512. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15191512
Buonasera K, Galletta M, Calvo MR, Pezzotti Escobar G, Leonardi AA, Irrera A. Organic Fluorescent Sensors for Environmental Analysis: A Critical Review and Insights into Inorganic Alternatives. Nanomaterials. 2025; 15(19):1512. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15191512
Chicago/Turabian StyleBuonasera, Katia, Maurilio Galletta, Massimo Rosario Calvo, Gianni Pezzotti Escobar, Antonio Alessio Leonardi, and Alessia Irrera. 2025. "Organic Fluorescent Sensors for Environmental Analysis: A Critical Review and Insights into Inorganic Alternatives" Nanomaterials 15, no. 19: 1512. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15191512
APA StyleBuonasera, K., Galletta, M., Calvo, M. R., Pezzotti Escobar, G., Leonardi, A. A., & Irrera, A. (2025). Organic Fluorescent Sensors for Environmental Analysis: A Critical Review and Insights into Inorganic Alternatives. Nanomaterials, 15(19), 1512. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15191512

