An Overview on Anodes for Magnesium Batteries: Challenges towards a Promising Storage Solution for Renewables
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Rechargeable Magnesium-Ion Batteries: State of Art
3. Magnesium Metal as Anode
4. Strategies beyond Elemental Magnesium Anodes
- Cheap, ubiquitous, eco-friendly and safe materials;
- Highly reversible alloying–dealloying process;
- Sufficiently fast magnesium diffusion, or phase propagation, within the base metal;
- High energy density;
- The voltage difference between alloying-dealloying processes must be as small as possible;
- Compatibility with inert components, such as conducting additives, binders and current collectors must be assured.
4.1. Bismuth-Based Anodes
4.2. Tin-Based Anodes
4.3. Biphasic Bismuth–Tin Alloy Anodes
4.4. Titanium-Based Anodes
4.5. Other Materials
5. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Battery Type | Specific Energy—Gravimetric (Wh kg−1) | Cycle Life (Lifetime) | Advantages | Technical and Cost Barriers |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lead acid [58] | 30–50 | 500–1000 | Low cost, mature and readily available, reliable and easily replaced, suitable for power quality, UPS and spinning reserve applications. | Short cycling capability, low power and energy density, slow charge. Low weight-to-energy ratio, thermal management requirement, environmental hazards, but fully recyclable. |
Ni-Cd sealed [59] | 30–45 | 500–800 | Relatively high energy density, relatively low cycling capability, high mechanical resistance, low maintenance requirement, suitable for power tools, emergency lighting, generator starting, telecoms and portable devices. | High cost, environmental hazards, memory effect. |
Ni-MH [59] | 40–80 | 600–1200 | Hybrid electric vehicles, portable electronic devices. | High self-discharge rate, low-temperature performance of the metal-hydride anode. |
Na-S [58] | 150–240 | 2500 | Relatively high power and energy density, efficient, economical for power quality and peak shaving purposes. | High operating temperature (≈ 300–350 °C). Heat source requirement, high cost. |
NaNiCl ZEBRA [59] | 85–140 | ≈ 2500 | Ability to withstand limited overcharge and discharge, relatively high electrochemical cell voltage (2.58 V), suitable for load-levelling applications | High operating temperature (≈ 270–350 °C), limited energy density. Lower power and energy density compared to NaS. |
Vanadium redox flow battery [58] | 10–30 | 12,000 | Energy and power independent, long life cycle, low self-discharge rates. Useful for large-scale applications. | High cost, complex standardization, low energy and power density, toxic remains. |
Lithium ion [10,59,60] | 100–300 | > 5000 | Relatively high power and density, almost 100% efficient, higher cycling capacity, fast response to charge and discharge operations. Useful for laptop computers, mobile devices, hybrid electric vehicles. | Reduced first-cycle capacity loss and volumetric expansion of intermetallic electrodes. High cost, degrades at high temperatures. |
Element | Average Abundancy (ppm) | Element | Average Abundancy (ppm) |
---|---|---|---|
Aluminium | 84,249 | Sulphur | 404 |
Iron | 52,157 | Chromium | 320 |
Magnesium | 28,104 | Zinc | 72 |
Sodium | 22,774 | Copper | 27 |
Titanium | 4136 | Cobalt | 26.6 |
Manganese | 774 | Nickel | 26.6 |
Phosphorus | 567 | Lanthanum | 20 |
Barium | 456 | Lithium | 16 |
Maximum Specific Capacity (mAh g−1) | Specific Capacity at the 100th Cycle (mAh g−1) | |
---|---|---|
Bi | 257 | 222 |
Bi0.88Sb0.12 | 298 | 215 |
Contribution of Bi (mAh g−1) | Contribution of Sn (mAh g−1) | |
---|---|---|
NP-Bi4Sn6 | 202 | 280 |
NP-Bi6Sn4 | 246 | 188 |
Contribution of Bi to Initial Specific Capacity | Contribution of Bi to Specific Capacity at the 200th Cycle | Percentage of Capacity Fading of Bi | Contribution of Sn to Initial Specific Capacity | Contribution of Sn to Specific Capacity at the 200th Cycle | Percentage of Capacity Fading of Sn |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
248 mAh g−1 | 154 mAh g−1 | 37.9% | 164 mAh g−1 | 126 mAh g−1 | 22.7% |
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Bella, F.; De Luca, S.; Fagiolari, L.; Versaci, D.; Amici, J.; Francia, C.; Bodoardo, S. An Overview on Anodes for Magnesium Batteries: Challenges towards a Promising Storage Solution for Renewables. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030810
Bella F, De Luca S, Fagiolari L, Versaci D, Amici J, Francia C, Bodoardo S. An Overview on Anodes for Magnesium Batteries: Challenges towards a Promising Storage Solution for Renewables. Nanomaterials. 2021; 11(3):810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030810
Chicago/Turabian StyleBella, Federico, Stefano De Luca, Lucia Fagiolari, Daniele Versaci, Julia Amici, Carlotta Francia, and Silvia Bodoardo. 2021. "An Overview on Anodes for Magnesium Batteries: Challenges towards a Promising Storage Solution for Renewables" Nanomaterials 11, no. 3: 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030810